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| ==Syntax== | | ==Syntax== |
| {{main|Qihep syntax}} | | {{main|Qihep syntax}} |
| Typologically speaking, Qihep is a strictly SOV language. That means that in the sentences the word order is unvariably '''Subject-Object-Verb'''.
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| * '''{{color|green|Subject}} - {{color|blue|Object}} - {{color|red|Verb}}''': '''{{color|green|Tȳn}} {{color|blue|ma}} {{color|red|śak sty}}''', ''{{color|green|He}} {{color|red|is following}} {{color|blue|you}}''
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| Word order is usually strictly respected, since words cannot show morphologically their role in the sentence (almost like in English).
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| Indirect object are usually placed before the direct object.
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| * '''{{color|green|Ul}} {{color|orange|tȳn}} {{color|blue|woroh}} {{color|red|nat kreś maj}}''', ''{{color|green|I}} {{color|red|have never given}} {{color|orange|him}} {{color|blue|the key}}''
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| Other members of the sentences are placed after the object, and they are mandatorily marked by postpositions, except from some adverbs clearly showing their meaning.
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| *'''{{color|green|Tȳn}} {{color|blue|trojkȳtxep}} {{color|purple|woroh ō}} {{color|red|ta āś fa}}''', ''{{color|green|He}} {{color|red|opened}} {{color|blue|the door}} {{color|purple|with the key}}''
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| * '''{{color|green|Ul}} {{color|orange|tȳn}} {{color|blue|woroh}} {{color|purple|arbultsēd}} {{color|red|kreś fa}}''', ''{{color|purple|Yesterday}} {{color|green|I}} {{color|red|gave}} {{color|orange|him}} {{color|blue|the key}}''
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| The order of the other elements of the sentence is not as strict as the main elements, but it usually follow the order '''Place-Manner-Time'''.
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| The word order of a Qihep sentence is thus this:
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| <center>'''Subject - Indirect Object - Direct Object - Place - Manner - Temporal adverbs or construction - Verb system'''</center>
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| Qihep is thus a consistently '''head-final''' language, which implies also other features:
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| * '''Adjective-Noun''': adjectives are always placed before their nouns
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| * '''Genitive-Noun''': genitive constructions are always placed before their nouns
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| * '''Noun-Postposition''': there are only postpositions and no prepositions
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| * '''Relative-Noun''': relative sentences are always placed before the noun they specify
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| Let's see an example of a sentence:
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| '''{{color|orange|Wē ū}} {{color|brown|le}} {{color|green|ma}} {{color|#FC0FC0|ul dī}} {{color|blue|woroh}} {{color|purple|arbultsēd}} {{color|red|kreś fa}} lo'''
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| {{color|orange|who[IND.OBJ]}}-{{color|brown|[TOP]}} {{color|green|you}} {{color|#FC0FC0|I[GEN]}}-{{color|blue|key}} {{color|purple|yesterday}} {{color|red|give[PER]}} [QUES]
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| ''Did you give my key yesterday to whom?''
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| ===Use of personal pronouns===
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| The use of personal pronoun is not different from English, except that the form of each personal pronoun is always the same. Personal pronouns are always and mandatorily pluralized with the particle '''la''' when referring to more than one referents, differently from every other element of the sentence, for which pluralization is always optional.
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| Thus, differently from English, Qihep has '''ma''' for singolar ''you'' and '''ma la''' for plural ''you'', like many other world languages.
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| The forms for the third personal pronouns are only apparently similar to English, and there are two pronouns meaning ''it'':
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| '''Tȳn''' can indicate a male referent or a referent whose gender is not known. Only the context can specify which is the chosen gender. It is used also for animals, male or with undefined gender, but not plants. In the plural usually indicates a genderless group, less frequently an all-male group.
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| '''Rȳs''' can indicate only a female referent. It is used also for animals, when their gender is clearly female. In the plural can indicate only an all-female group.
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| '''Qem''' indicates an unanimated real item, or a group of them in the plural. It can be also used for small animals, but this is not very frequent.
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| '''Do''' indicates something undefined, an idea, a spoken subject, not a tangible item. It's rarely pluralized and its meaning is usually ''something already said'' or ''aforementioned''
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| The reciprocal and reflexive personal pronouns are quite peculiar, and they are ''never'' pluralized with '''la''':
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| '''Sī''', the ''reciprocal'' pronoun, indicates that the expressed subjects perform the action reciprocally, an idea that it is expressed in English with the form ''each other''. This pronoun never appear as the subject elements but it is usually placed in the direct or indirect object place, or as another element with a postposition. The subject is always in the plural form, since there should be two or more subjects for the action to be reciprocal.
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| * '''Ul la sī mīl''', ''They love each other''
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| '''Śy''', the ''reflexive'' pronoun, indicated that the expressed subject performs the action on himself, an idea that it is expressed in English with the suffix ''-self/selves''. This pronoun never appear as the subject elements but it is usually placed in the direct or indirect object place, or as another element with a postposition.
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| * '''Tȳn śy ēt sty''', ''He is washing himself''
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| ===Genitive construction===
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| Genitive constructions can specify any element of the sentence (except the verb cluster) and they are mandatorily placed before the element they specify.
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| When they convey a quality of the modified element, they are usually directly placed before their noun without any particle, as in English.
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| * '''{{color|#FC0FC0|Dīn}} vranvran''', ''the population {{color|#FC0FC0|of the world''}}, ''{{color|#FC0FC0|world}} population''
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| When they convey a possession, they are usually marked with the genitive particle '''dī''':
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| * '''{{color|#FC0FC0|Xūcmor dī}} kōr''', ''the book {{color|#FC0FC0|of the student''}}, ''{{color|#FC0FC0|the student's}} book''
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| * '''{{color|#FC0FC0|Ul dī}} rof''', ''{{color|#FC0FC0|My}} dog'', ''The dog {{color|#FC0FC0|of mine}}''
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| The genitive particle can be used to convey qualitative specification, in case of ambiguity:
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| * '''{{color|#FC0FC0|Nār vran dī}} byl''', ''the city {{color|#FC0FC0|of that man''}}, ''{{color|#FC0FC0|that man's}} city'' (<small>the city does not belong to the man, but the simple juxtaposition would be ambiguous in a sentence; moreover the difference between attribute and possession is really difficult to distinguish in such sentences, as in English</small>)
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| ===Topicalization===
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| As usual for an isolating language, word order in Qihep is strictly respected. There is, however, a way to alter word order, expecially when it doesn't agree with the '''topic-comment''' order.
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| When the topic is not the subject but another element of the sentence, it can be moved in another position, usually at the first position of the sentence (but also the end of the sentece can be a possible position), or syntactically speaking, it can be '''topicalized'''. In this case the ''topicalizing'' particle '''le''' is mandatorily placed after the new topic element.
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| * '''Tȳn {{color|blue|wū}} skyt sty lo''', ''What is he doing?'' → '''{{color|blue|wū}} {{color|brown|le}} tȳn skyt sty lo''', ''Is he doing what?''
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| Since the topicalization process can obscure the grammatical role of the element, the element itself is usually marked by the corresponding postposition, even if it is the subject, the direct object or the indirect object. The postposition are left out only if ambiguity is not possible.
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| * '''Wē ā {{color|brown|le}} ma ta piǵ fa lo''', ''You saw who?'', ''Who is the one who you saw?''
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| * '''Wē ū {{color|brown|le}} ma woroh ta kreś fa lo''', ''You gave the key to whom?'', ''Who is the one, who you gave the key?''
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| The subject is usually already the topic of the information and would not need topicalizing. It can however be topicalized, with a meaning of intensification of the topic information.
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| * '''Wē {{color|brown|le}} sluh krāx ǵa lo''', ''Who is the one who has broken the vase?''
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| ===The verbal cluster===
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| The verbal cluster is placed at the end of the sentence. Its core is the '''verb''' itself, which conveys only the meaning of the action or the state and its intrinsic qualities, like transitivity, intransivity, etc.
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| The verbal cluster is usually considered as composed of these elements:
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| {| align="center"
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| |- align="center"
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| |'''Negation''' ||-|| '''Time''' ||-|| {{color|red|'''Verb'''}} ||-|| '''Aspect''' ||-|| '''Mode''' ||-|| '''Evidentiality'''
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| |}
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| The categories ''negation'', ''time'', ''aspect'', ''mode'', and ''evidentiality'' are expressed by grammatical particles. None of these particles is absolutely necessary, and none of this is mandatorily present, except for the verb itself.
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| Negation is usually considered part of the verbal cluster but it will be analysed separately, because of its different behaviour in the sentence.
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| ====Use of temporal particles====
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| Temporal particles express the time at which the action of the verb takes place. Three periods are considered, ''present'', ''past'' and ''future''. The perception of what exactly is present, past, or future is very subjective but it depends on how broad is considered "''present''".
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| For example, the entire period of time taken in consideration can be considered as present if the action covers the entire period of time and still ongoing.
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| '''Ul tyk rok o jy mar sty''': ''I'm working hard this year''
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| English usually shares the same perception of present time.
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| The absence of time particles, quite common, indicates that the time is the present or that the action or the state is always true or that the information about time is not considered as relevant by the speaker. Only the context can disambiguate which idea the speaker wants to transmit.
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| Temporal particles are placed just before the verb and after the negation particles.
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| '''Ta''' locates the action in the '''''past''''', every moment before the present.
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| * '''Tȳn la dōm ta bim fa''', ''they went home''
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| * '''Tȳn la dōm ta bim sty''', ''they were going home''
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| * '''Tȳn la dōm ta bim ǵa''', ''he has already gone home''
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| '''Rā''' locates the action in the '''''remote past''''', that is a past that we feel remote and far from us; it is therefore very used in history reports, tales, fairytales, and almost for every event that took place before the speaker's birth. Its use may vary from speaker to speaker, as it can be very subjective, when referring to non historical events.
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| * '''Tȳn la dōm rā bim fa''', ''they went home'' (speaking about history, or in a tale)
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| '''Mo''' locates the action in the '''''present'''''; it is usually omitted, but when it is expressed, it conveys the meaning of a precise present moment, like the English adverb "''right now''" (which is usually translated with).
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| * '''Tȳn la dōm mo bim sty''', ''they are going home right now''
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| '''Fut''' locates the action in the '''''future''''', every moment after the present.
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| * '''Tȳn la dōm fut bim fa''', ''they will go home''
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| * '''Tȳn la dōm fut bim sty''', ''they will be going home''
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| '''Fu ta''' locates the action in the '''''future in the past''''', which is a moment located in the future of a past time, but still in the past for the speaker.
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| * '''Tȳn ta kāǵ fa tȳn la dōm fu ta bim fa ā''', ''he said they would went home''
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| Time particles are routinely omitted because their information is often considered unimportant or irrelevant. Expecially in direct speech, when the time can be easily inferred by the real context, they are less used than in the written form. They are usually never used when another time indication, like ''yesterday'' or ''tomorrow'', is already expressed in the sentence.
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| In a long text, with many sentences, the time particle is usually placed in the first main sentence and then omitted in the following one, only to be placed again if the time changes. If ambiguity arises, the time particle is added again, expecially if the text is very long and the time need to be reasserted to keep the correct time location.
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| ====Use of aspectual particles====
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| Aspectual particles express the verbal aspect, that is how the action or the state extends over time, how it is performed over the time, for example if the action is completed or still ongoing, if it is a habitual action or it is repeated over time. Aspect is not directly related to time and differently from English and other European language, it is expressed in the past, in the present and in the future.
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| The absence of time particles, quite uncommon, indicates that the aspect of the verb is not considered as relevant for the information by the speaker, for example if the action is simply cited for itself, with no relevance for its real happening.
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| '''Fa''' conveys the idea of a completed action, with no regard for its effects or results; the speaker wants to trasmit the idea that the action or the state is completed and without any mention to possible effects on the time he is talking about. This is called ''perfective aspect'':
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| * '''Ul ryb ta cax fa''', ''I ate the fish'': the speaker says he ate chicken, with no attention of its effects on the present.
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| * '''Ul ryb fut cax fa''', ''I will eat the chicken'', the speaker says he will eat chicken and that he will eat it completely.
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| '''Ǵa''' conveys the idea of an action which results still have effects on the moment the speaker is talking about, with the action usually meant as completed; the action is perceived to be just performed. It almost corresponds to the English perfect tenses, and it is called the ''perfect aspect''.
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| * '''Ul ta cax ǵa''', ''I have eaten'', ''I have just eaten'': the speaker says he ate something, but there something about the action which still affects the present, for example to stress the fact that is stil sated.
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| Differently from English, which expresses this action with a present perfect tense, Qihep temporally locates the action in the past, as the effects on the present are already expressed by the aspectual particle.
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| '''Sty''' conveys the idea of a ongoing action, marking an uncompleted ongoing action in the moment the speaker is talking about. It almost corresponds to the English continous tenses, and it is called the ''continuous aspect''.
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| * '''Ul ryb cax sty''', ''I am eating a fish'': the speaker says he's performing the action of eating (usually not marked in the present)
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| * '''Ul ryb ta cax sty''', ''I was eating a fish'': the speaker says he was performing the action of eating in the moment he is talking about.
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| Differently from English wich uses perfect continuous forms to express this kind of actions, Qihep marks ongoing action with indication of the moment of their start with the simple continuous forms, not using the perfect forms.
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| * '''Ul ryb rok on nat cax sty''', ''I have not been eating fish for a year'': the speaker says he have not been performing the action for this time frame. Time is unmarked, that is present, and the aspect is only continous.
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| '''Sōl''' conveys the idea of a habitual action , it marks an action which is routinely or habitually performed. It is translated with the English form ''usually'' or the construction ''used to'' in the past, and it is called the ''habitual aspect''.
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| * '''Ul ryb cax sōl''', ''I usually eat fish'', the speaker he has the habit of eating fish
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| * '''Ul ryb ta cax sōl''', ''I used to eat fish'', the speaker he had the habit of eating fish (and presumably he has not anymore)
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| '''Rē''' conveys the idea of a repetitive action, which is repeatedly performed but not habitually nor regularly. It is translated with the English form ''again'' or the construction ''keep to'', and it is called the ''repetitive aspect''
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| * '''Tȳn ryb cax rē''', ''He keeps on eating fish'', ''He's eating again and again'', the speaker says that the subject is repeatedly performing the action
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| '''Pyr''' conveys the idea of an action which is about to be performed in the moment the speaker is talking about. It is translated with the English ''about to'', and it is called the ''prospective aspect''
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| * '''Ul cax pyr''', ''I am about to eating'', the speaker says that the action of eating is not yet begun but it is about to do so.
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| '''Maj''' conveys the idea that the speaker has or hasn't experienced the action almost once in a life in the moment he is talking about. It is translated with the English form ''already'' in positive sentences or with ''ever'' and ''never'' in questions or negative sentences. It is called the ''experiencial aspect''
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| * '''Ul ryb cax maj''', ''I have already eaten fish'', the speaker says he has experienced fish almost once. This kind of sentence never express the meaning of ''just'' which the adverb ''already'' can convey, this is expressed by the perfect particle.
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| * '''Ul ryb nat cax maj''', ''I have never eaten fish'', the speaker says he has never experienced fish in his life
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| * '''Ma ryb cax maj lo''', ''Have you ever eaten fish?'', the speaker asks someone whether he has ever experienced fish in his life
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| As in English these sentences are temporally located in the corresponding perfect tense, but they are marked with this aspectual particle, not with the perfect one.
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| If unexpressed, the time considered for the experience is the life of the speaker, past or future. The timespan can however be expressed and thus limited.
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| * '''Ul ryb tyk rok o nat cax maj''', ''I have never eaten fish this year'', the speaker says he has not experienced fish in the entire current year, but he might have eaten it before.
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| ====Use of modal particles====
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| Modal particles express verbal modality, describing a quality about the action or the state expressed by the verb. English has only two modes (or moods) and it relies on modal verbs to express the same meaning of Qihep modal particles.
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| The absence of any modal particles conveys the basic idea of an action or a state, the reality form, without any added information about wish, obligation, possibility, etc.
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| Modal particles are placed after the aspectual particles and before the evidential particles. Since it is possible for more that one modal particles to be present in a verbal cluster, they can be added in the following order.
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| '''Vol''' conveys an idea of will, intent, intention or the idea for a planned action
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt ta lā vol''': ''He wanted to write a text'' (the subject had the intention to write the text, and it is almost sure he wrote it)
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt fut lā vol''': ''He is going to write a text'' (he has the intention and has planned to write the text)
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| '''Des''' conveys the idea of wish, desire, crave or hope, but it doesn't give any information about intention or planning
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt fut lā des''': ''He would like to write a text'' (the subject has the wishes to write the text, but we have no information if he has planned to do so)
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt ta lā des''': ''He wished to write a text'' (the subject has the wishes to write the text, but it seemed unlikely that he wrote it)
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| Without any specific subject or with a subject that cannot feel wish, it can express a general hope for the action to get real (something like the English subjunctive with ''may''):
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| * '''Dōb lākȳt ā le fut lā fa des''': ''May a good text be written'' (we hope that it will be this way)
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| '''Pos''' conveys an idea of ability, capability, that the subject knows how to do something, both an innate or a learnt capability.
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| * '''Tȳn nat lā pos''': ''He cannot write'' (for example, because the subject is too young, and still does not know how to write)
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| '''Kra''' conveys an idea of a momentaneous ability, something that the subject can do in this moment, not a forever real capability.
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| * '''Tȳn nat lā kra sty''': ''He cannot write'' (for example, the subject is too excited to write, too cold or too frightened, a momentaneous condition, but he knows how to write)
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| '''Ro''' conveys an idea of possibility, likelihood, potentiality of the action
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt fut lā ro''': ''He may write a text'' (it will be possible for the subject to perform the action and likely will do it)
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt ta lā fa ro''': ''He might have written a text'' (it was possible for the subject to perform the action and very likely has done it)
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| '''Da''' conveys an idea of allowance, permission, consent, approval
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt fut lā da''': ''He can write a text'' (the subject has received permission to do it)
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt ta lā fa da''': ''He was allowed write a text'' (the subject received permission to write, and very likely has done it)
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| '''Ōb''' conveys an idea of obligation, assigned duty or task, requirement
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt fut lā fa ōb''': ''He has to write down a text'' (the subject has the obligation to write, not doing it on his own initiative)
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt ta lā ōb''': ''He was compelled to write a text'' (the subject feels the obligation to write )
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| '''Nec''' conveys an idea of necessity, need, must
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt lā nec''': ''He must write a text'' (the subject feel the need, on his own initiative, to write)
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt fut lā fa ōb''': ''He needed to write down a text'' (the subject had the need to write the text, and likely has done it)
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| '''Vā''' conveys a causative sense, indicating that a subject causes someone or something to perform an action which was non-voluntarily (normally expressed in English by the auxiliary verbs ''let'', ''make'', ''get'' or ''have''). Since a new performer of the action is introduced, the syntax of the sentence is reorganized. This will be analysed separately.
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| * '''Tȳn wa lākȳt rȳs in ta lā fa vā''': ''She made him write a text''
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| '''Kōm''' conveys an incohative action, marking a beginning action
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt ta lā fa kōm''': ''He began to write a text'' (the subject gets the action started)
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| Since the beginning action is inherently imperfective, aspectual particles with this modal particles refer to the aspects of the action of beginning, not the main action itself.
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| '''Fōr''' conveys an idea of hypothesis. It usually translate the concept of ''if'', ''in the case that'', ''maybe''
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt ta lā fa fōr''': ''In the case he could have written a text'' (we express the hypothesis the subject would have performed the action)
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| '''Si''' conveys the idea of direct command, order, injunction. It usually translate the concept of English ''imperative mood'', that is the subject is given the order to perform the action by the speaker:
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| * '''Ma lākȳt lā fa si''': ''Write down a text'' (the subject is ordered to write)
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| It should be noted that the verb is not placed at the beginning of the sentence, but it is left in its normal position.
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| Differently from English, which for the second person left the subject unexpressed, the subject who has to perform the action is always expressed, expecially in the written language. Only in direct speech, in a strongly emotional situation for example, the second person can be left out:
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| * '''Lā fa si''': ''Write!'' (This is an order given in a state of anger or anxiety, for example)
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| Also differently from English, which use the modal verb ''let'' to express imperative forms for other persons than the second one, these imperative forms are expressed with the simple modal particle '''si''':
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| * '''Tȳn lākȳt lā fa si''': ''Let him write down a text!''
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| * '''Ul la lākȳt lā fa si''': ''Let's write down a text!''
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| ====Use of evidential particles====
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| Evidential particles express the nature of the evidence for a statement, if evidence exists for the action stated or the attitude of the speaker in relation to the reported information.
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| The absence of any evidential particle does not imply that the speaker has actually witnessed the reported action, but only that this information is not relevant for the speech. There is however no evidential particle to express eye-witness of the action and this must be deduced by the context or lexically expressed.
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| Evidential particles are placed after the aspectual and modal particles and are always the last element of the verbal cluster.
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| '''Nah''' conveys the idea of reported action, with a stress on the fact that the information is reported by someone else, and that the speaker (and not the subject of the action) has not personally witnessed the action.
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| * '''Ńakvran sluh ta krāx fa nah''': ''I was told that someone broke the vase'' (The speaker has not seen the action nor the broken vase, but someone else has told him about what happened)
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| '''Box''' conveys an idea of doubt about the tale. The action is reported by someone else, and the speaker (and not the subject of the action) has not eye-witnessed either the action or any evidence about it and according to him/her the action is doubtful.
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| * '''Ńakvran sluh ta krāx fa box''': ''It seems/I was told that someone might have broken the vase'' (The speaker has not seen the action nor the broken vase, someone else has told him about what happened, but he express a serious doubt about the reported action)
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| '''Kap''' conveys an idea of deduction, since the speaker (and not the subject) has not personally seen the action, but he/she has seen some evidences about the action and he/she deduces the action from these evidences.
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| * '''Ńakvran sluh ta krāx fa kap''': ''Someone has broken the vase'' (The speaker has not seen the action, but he has found and seen the broken vase, and makes his own deduction about what happened)
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| ===Negation===
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| Negation is expressed by two negation particles. It is usuall considered as a part of the verbal cluster. The two particles are:
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| '''Nat''', which negates every element or cluster placed after it. In the verbal cluster it is placed before the time particles:
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| *'''Ma pām ta sryńnēm fa''', ''You bought the bread'' → '''Ma pām {{color|red|nat}} ta sryńnēm fa''', ''You {{color|red|didn't}} buy the bread''
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| The verbal cluster is not altered by the negation as in English.
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| The negation particle can however be placed outside the verbal cluster, negating thus a specific element of the sentence:
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| *'''Ma pām ta sryńnēm fa''', ''You bought the bread'' → '''{{color|red|Nat}} ma le pām ta sryńnēm fa''', ''{{color|red|It wasn't}} you who bought the bread''
| |
| *'''Ma pām ta sryńnēm fa''', ''You bought the bread'' → '''ma {{color|red|nat}} pām a ȳk le ta sryńnēm fa''', ''You {{color|red|didn't}} buy the bread {{color|red|but}} meat''
| |
| The negated elements are usually topicalized with '''le''', but they are not mandatorily placed at the beginning of the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| '''Pē''', which express a prohibition, a forbiddance, thus the imperative form of the negative. It alters the verbal cluster, since the imperative modal particle is usually omitted.
| |
| *'''Ma pām sryńnēm fa si''', ''Buy the bread!'' → '''Ma pām {{color|red|pē}} sryńnēm fa''', ''{{color|red|Don't}} buy the bread!''
| |
| This particle cannot negate other elements of the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| As in English, double negatives are not allowed in Qihep. Only one word in the sentence can be negated:
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|red|nanvran}} ta piǵ fa''': ''I saw nobody''
| |
| * '''Ul ńakvran {{color|red|nat}} ta piǵ fa''': ''I did not see anybody''
| |
|
| |
| ===Causative forms===
| |
| Causative forms are peculiar, since they introduce a new argument, the causer, which causes someone or something to perform the action. The syntax of the sentence is therefore modified in English, since the performer is marked as the object and the causer as the subject, and the causative action is marked by verbs like ''to let'', ''to make'', ''to cause'', ''to have'', or ''to get''.
| |
|
| |
| Qihep uses a causative modal particle, '''vā''' added in the verbal cluster to mark the causative form of the verb. The performer of the action remain in its subject position, while the causer is introduced in the action as another member of the sentence and it is marked by the ''causative-agentive'' postposition '''in'''.
| |
| * '''Ul ta wā fa''' → '''Ul {{color|blue|tȳn in}} ta wā fa {{color|red|vā}}''', ''I cried'' → ''{{color|blue|he}} {{color|red|made}} me cry''
| |
|
| |
| The causer is placed, like the other elements of the sentence after the direct object, but since it has an agentive roles, it is usually place before any other element. All other elements are placed in their regular positions.
| |
| * '''Ul la lākȳt tȳn in arbultsēd lā fa vā''', ''Yesterday he made us write a text''
| |
|
| |
| ===Passive forms===
| |
| Qihep verbs lack a passive form. In order to express a meaning similar to a passive forme, the object is moved to the first position of the sentence and is marked it with the accusative particle '''ā''' and with the topicalizing particle '''le'''. Since there is no real passivization, the agent of the action is not marked and is left in its subject position:
| |
| * '''{{color|green|Mew}} {{color|blue|mīś}} {{color|red|ta fabej fa}}''', ''the cat killed the mouse'' → '''{{color|blue|mīś ā le}} {{color|green|mew}} {{color|red|ta fabej fa}}''', ''the mouse was killed by the cat''
| |
|
| |
| If there is no agent, the subject is simply left unexpressed, and the use of the topicalizing particles becomes optional:
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|Mīś ā le}} {{color|red|ta fabej fa}}''', ''the mouse was killed''
| |
|
| |
| As in English, this the way to express the impersonal subject of other languages:
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|Qīxēp ā}} tykmeś {{color|red|xēp}}''', ''Qihep is spoken here'', in French: ''ici on parle qihep'', in Italian ''qui si parla qihep'', in German ''man spricht Qihep hier''
| |
|
| |
| Even if it is possible to form a passive adjective with the suffix '''-sy''', this is never used as a verb, but only as an adjective.
| |
| * '''Mew {{color|red|fabejsy}} mīś ta cax fa''', ''The cat ate the {{color|red|killed}} mouse''
| |
|
| |
| ===Locative verbs===
| |
| Qihep lacks generic locative postpositions (the locative postpositions usually convey well defined and clear locative meanings, like ''near'' or ''towards''). This is because there are '''locative verbs''', which express the meaning of location or movement. This kind of verbs treat the location or the destination of the movement as their ''object'', so they are marked by the simple position in the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|xūcmeś}} ńik bultsēd {{color|red|bim}} sōl''', ''I {{color|red|go}} {{color|blue|to school}} every day''
| |
| * '''Tȳn la {{color|blue|<u>Itālia</u>}} ta {{color|red|sōlǵīv}} sōl''', ''They {{color|red|used to live}} {{color|blue|in Italy}}''
| |
| * '''Ma {{color|blue|wū}} {{color|red|stā}} lo''', ''{{color|blue|Where}} {{color|red|are}} you?''
| |
|
| |
| When a verb can express both the source and the destination of a movement, the source takes the place of the indirect object, while the destination is still the object of the verb.
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|orange|frīnmeś}} {{color|blue|dūm}} ta {{color|red|bim}} fa''', ''She {{color|red|went}} {{color|blue|home}} {{color|orange|from the market}}''
| |
|
| |
| When the location or the destination need to be marked to avoid ambiguity or topicalized, they are marked with the object particle '''ā'''.
| |
|
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|Wū ā}} le rȳs {{color|red|stā}} lo''', ''She {{color|red|is}} {{color|blue|in which place}}?''
| |
|
| |
| When the source of movement needs to be marked to avoid ambiguity or topicalized, it is marked by postposition '''ud'''.
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul la {{color|orange|<u>Itālia</u> ud}} ta {{color|red|qin}} fa''', ''We {{color|red|came}} {{color|orange|from Italy}}''
| |
|
| |
| When we want to express a locative expression in a sentence with another non-locative verbs, we have to use a relative sentence with a locative verb.
| |
|
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|<u>Rōma</u> ā}} {{color|red|dūqin}} ǵa dī ma la ā le ul la dōb topīk''', ''Welcome {{color|blue|to Rome}}!'', (lit. ''We receive well you that you {{color|red|have come}} {{color|blue|to Rome''}})
| |
| * '''Tȳn la {{color|blue|nār sryńmeś ā}} {{color|red|stā}} sty dī xūckreśmor ta piǵ fa''', ''They saw the professor {{color|blue|in that shop}}'' (lit. ''They saw the professor who {{color|red|was}} {{color|blue|in that shop}}'')
| |
|
| |
|
| |
| {| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
| |
| !colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Locative verbs
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Verb || English
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''stā''' || ''to be in''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''bim''' || ''to go to''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''dōlbim''' || ''to go down to'', ''to descend to''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''dūbim''' || ''to arrive to'', ''to reach''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''unbim''' || ''to go in'', ''to enter''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''vybim''' || ''to go out'', ''to exit''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''qin''' || ''to come to''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''dōlqin''' || ''to come down to'', ''to descend to''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''dūqin''' || ''to arrive to'', ''to reach''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''unqin''' || ''to come in'', ''to enter''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''vyqin''' || ''to come out'', ''to exit''
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''sōlǵīv || ''to live in''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| ===Questions===
| |
| Direct interrogative sentences, or questions, are built differently from English. The position of every word is unaltered and the entire sentence is marked by the interrogative particle '''lo''' at the very end of the sentence.
| |
| * '''Tȳn kōr sa sty''' → '''tȳn kōr sa sty {{color|red|lo}}''', ''he is reading a book'' → ''is he reading a book?''
| |
|
| |
| The word order remains the same even with interrogative pronouns or adverbs, which are placed in their regular position; they can be regularily fronted by using the topicalizing particle '''le''', but the meaning expressed is slightly different, since it is topicalized.
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ma {{color|blue|wū}} ta sryńnēm fa lo''', ''What did you buy?''
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|Wūmeś le}} ma qem ta sryńnēm fa lo''', ''Which is the place where you bought them?''
| |
|
| |
| If the question is followed by a subordinate or a coordinate clause, the particle '''lo''' is placed at the end of these clauses, if their meaning is part of the question.
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ma ul woroh kreś fa ul tyk trojkȳtxep āśvor fa le {{color|red|lo}}''', ''Would you give me the keys to open this door?''
| |
|
| |
| The basic answers to a yes/no question are:
| |
| * '''Dā''', ''yes''
| |
| * '''Nā''', ''no''
| |
|
| |
| ===The verb "to be"===
| |
| Qihep lacks a verb meaning ''to be'' in the form that English or other European languages have. It has instead more constructions:
| |
|
| |
| With the meaning of locative ''to be'', ''to find yourself'', the locative verb '''stā''' is used, according to the rules of locative verbs.
| |
| * '''Rȳs dōm mo {{color|red|stā}} sty''', ''She {{color|red|is}} at home right now''
| |
|
| |
| With the meaning of existencial ''to be'', that is ''to be there'', the verb '''ē''' is used.
| |
| * '''Dē la {{color|red|ē}} sty''', ''{{color|red|There are}} many children''
| |
|
| |
| With the meaning of qualitative or attributive ''to be'', that is ''X is Y'', there are no verbal form available. Adjectives or apposition are simply placed in the verbal position.
| |
| * '''Tȳn jenmor''', ''He is a doctor''
| |
| * '''Ul la jūn''', ''We are young''
| |
|
| |
| The adjectives are treated like verbs in this case, and they take the role of the core of the verbal cluster, taking the necessary grammar particles:
| |
| * '''Ul la nat jūn ǵa''', ''We are not young anymore''
| |
|
| |
| Also appositive names can be treated like verbs, but the sentence is usually transformed with other verbs, so that at the core of verbal cluster there is a real verb.
| |
| * '''Tȳn ta jenmor sōl''', ''He used to be a doctor'' → '''Tȳn jenmor bā ta {{color|blue|mar}} sōl''', ''He used to {{color|blue|work}} as a doctor''
| |
|
| |
| ===Subordinate clauses===
| |
| Qihep lacks proper subordinating particles, as it considers subordinate as phrasal elements of the main sentence. Even if it might be possible to place this phrasal element inside the sentence, it is usually placed in the beginning or at end of the sentence, i.e before of after the main sentence.
| |
|
| |
| ====Subjective and objective clauses====
| |
| Subjective and objective clauses are marked respectively with the grammar particles for the subject, '''wa''', and for the direct object, '''ā''', placed after the verbal cluster. If they are placed before the main sentence, they are mandatorily marked with the topicalizing particle '''le''', while if they are placed after the main sentence, '''le''' is not mandatory.
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|Ma qin ǵa wa le}} śōn''', ''it is beautiful {{color|blue|that you have come}}''
| |
| * '''Tȳn kāg fa {{color|blue|upbultsēd klōj bim fa ā}}''', ''he said {{color|blue|it will rain tomorrow}}''
| |
|
| |
| ====Relative clauses====
| |
| Qihep lacks proper relative pronouns, as it considers relative clauses as phrasal specifying elements, like a genitive phrasal element. The relative sentence is placed before the noun it specifies and it is marked by the genitive particle '''dī'''.
| |
|
| |
| There is some difference, however, according to the role that the specified element plays in the relative clause:
| |
|
| |
| When the specified element is the subject of the relative clause, it can be dropped, but the object must be mandatorily marked with the object particle '''ā''':
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|tȳn Qīxēp ta xūckreś fa dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|who taught Qihep}}''
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|Qīxēp}} {{color|red|ā}} {{color|blue|ta xūckreś fa dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|who taught Qihep}}''
| |
|
| |
| When the specified element is the object of the relative clause, it can be dropped, and the subject can be marked with the subject particle '''wa''', but this is not mandatory:
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|ma tȳn arbultsēd piǵ fa dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|whom you saw yesterday}}''
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|ma}} {{color|red|wa}} {{color|blue|arbultsēd piǵ fa dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|whom you saw yesterday}}''
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|ma arbultsēd piǵ fa dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|whom you saw yesterday}}''
| |
|
| |
| When the specified element is the indirect object of the relative clause, the sentence is expressed as normal, but the indirect object pronoun is expressed by the corresponding personal pronoun and it can be marked by the dative particle '''ū''', and the direct object with the object particle '''ā''', expecially in case of ambiguity:
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|ma tȳn kōr ta kreś fa dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|whom you had given the book}}''
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|ma tȳn}} {{color|red|ū}} {{color|blue|kōr ta kreś fa dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|whom you had given the book}}''
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|ma tȳn}} {{color|red|ū}} {{color|blue|kōr}} {{color|red|ā}} {{color|blue|ta kreś fa dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|whom you had given the book}}''
| |
|
| |
| When the specified element plays one of the other roles in the relative clause, the sentence is expressed as normal, the element is expressed by the corresponding personal pronoun and it is mandatorily marked by the corresponding particle:
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|blue|ma tȳn}} {{color|red|ab}} {{color|blue|ta xēp sty dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|blue|whom you were talking}} {{color|red|about}}''
| |
|
| |
| The same process is used when the specified elements is in genitive construction (expressed in English by the relative pronoun ''whose'') in the relative clause. The specified element is expressed by the corresponding personal pronoun and it is mandatorily marked by the genitive particle '''dī''':
| |
| * '''Ul {{color|red|tȳn dī}} {{color|blue|kōr śōn dī}} xūckreśmor ta unqum fa''', ''I met the teacher {{color|red|whose}} {{color|blue|book is beautiful}}''
| |
|
| |
| ====Temporal clauses====
| |
| There are two kinds of temporal clauses: those that refer to a single or precise moment, expressed by the word '''dān''', ''moment'', and those that refer to a longer period of time, expressed by the word '''tsēd''', ''time''.
| |
|
| |
| This word are marked by the corresponding temporal grammar particles '''o''', '''on''', '''u''', '''bī''', '''śi''', '''ńo''', and placed at the beginning or at the end of the sentence with the topicalizing particle '''le'''. The possibile temporal constructions are:
| |
|
| |
| * '''Dān o le''' (''in the moment when'') or '''tsēd o le''' (''in the period when'') = ''when'', ''while''
| |
| * '''Dān u le''' (''from the moment when'') or '''tsēd u le''' (''from the period when'') = ''since''
| |
| * '''Dān bī le''' (''until the moment when'') or '''tsēd bī le''' (''until the period when'') = ''until''
| |
| * '''Dān śi le''' (''before the moment when'') or '''tsēd śi le''' (''before the period when'') = ''before''
| |
| * '''Dān ńo le''' (''after the moment when'') or '''tsēd ńo le''' (''after the period when'') = ''after''
| |
|
| |
| The meaning of the construction is usually specified by the aspectual particles of the verb:
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|Dān o le tȳn vybim fa}} tȳn tȳn la ta unqum fa''', ''{{color|blue|When he went out}}, he met them.''
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|Dān o le tȳn nōbim sty}} tȳn tȳn la ta unqum fa''', ''{{color|blue|While he was walking}}, he met them.''
| |
|
| |
| ====Purpose clauses====
| |
| There are two ways of expressing a purpose clause:
| |
|
| |
| 1. The '''supine''' verbal suffix '''-vor''' is used and the clause is usually but not mandatorily marked by the topicalizing particle '''le''' after the verbal cluster. The verbal form can be specified by modal and aspectual particles, but time particles are usually not used.
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul qin ǵa {{color|blue|ul ma śpomvor fa le}}''', ''I've come {{color|blue|to help you}}.''
| |
|
| |
| 2. The purpose clause is marked by the construction '''tsel vor le''', which can be placed at the beginning or at the end of the clause, and all verbal particles are used.
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul qin ǵa {{color|blue|tsel vor le ul la śpom fa}}''', ''I've come {{color|blue|to help you}}.''
| |
|
| |
| ====Causative clauses====
| |
| Causative clauses are marked by the construction '''prīc par le''', which can be placed at the beginning or at the end of the clause.
| |
| * '''Xup nēmvran ta vēbeg fa {{color|blue|prīc par le tyn la ā piǵ fa}}''', ''the two thieves ran away, {{color|blue|because they saw them}}.''
| |
|
| |
| ====Modal clauses====
| |
| Modal clauses are marked by the construction '''cin bā le''', which can be placed at the beginning or at the end of the clause.
| |
| * '''Ma kīn fa si {{color|blue|cin bā le ma wiś}}''', ''Do {{color|blue|as you want}}!''
| |
| ====Indirect interrogative clauses====
| |
| Indirect interrogative clauses are marked in two ways:
| |
|
| |
| If there is an interrogative pronoun or adverb, the sentence is placed before or after the noun without the interrogative particle '''lo''':
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul nat snā {{color|blue|wē ta vybim fa}}''', ''I don't know {{color|blue|who went out}}''
| |
|
| |
| If in the corrisponding direct question there is no interrogative pronoun or adverb, the sentence is placed before or after the verb with the interrogative particle '''lo''' in the right place:
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul nat snā {{color|blue|rȳs ta vybim fa lo}}''', ''I don't know {{color|blue|if she went out}}''
| |
|
| |
| Indirect interrogative clauses can be marked with the object particle '''ā''' or the topicalizing particle '''le''', but this is not mandatorily and they are usually used only in case of ambiguity, especially when the interrogative clause is placed before the main sentence.
| |
|
| |
| * '''Ul nat snā {{color|blue|rȳs wū ta kāǵ fa ā}}''', ''I don't know {{color|blue|who went out}}''
| |
| * '''{{color|blue|Ul tȳn ńakqem ta kāǵ fa lo ā le}} tȳn la nat snā ''', ''{{color|blue|Whether I told him anything}}, they don't know''
| |
|
| |
| ====Conditional clauses====
| |
| Conditional clauses are not explicity marked with a grammar particle nor with the topicalizing particle, but by the modal hypothetical particle '''fōr'''. Two sentences with verbs marked with '''fōr''' are meant as a conditional clause and its main clause:
| |
|
| |
| * '''Tȳn la dōm fut bim {{color|blue|fōr}}, ul tȳn la e fut bim {{color|blue|fōr}}''', ''{{color|blue|If}} they went home, I would go with them.''
| |
| * '''Tȳn do ta snā fa {{color|blue|fōr}}, tȳn ma ta śpom fa {{color|blue|fōr}}''', ''{{color|blue|If}} he had know, he would have helped you''
| |
|
| |
| The hypothetical particle '''fōr''' strictly marks an hypothesis, so it is not used when it's not an hyphotesis, but a state of fact:
| |
| * '''Bul tykmeś stā, pū nat''', ''If there is the sun, it is not night''
| |
|
| |
| When the meaning of ''if'' is more temporal than an hypothesis, the clause is meant as temporal and not conditional:
| |
| * ''{{color|blue|If}} you come, you'll see him'' (= ''{{color|blue|When}} you come''), '''{{color|blue|Dān o le}} ma fut qin fa, ma tȳn fut piǵ fa'''
| |
| * ''{{color|blue|If}} there is the sun, it is not night'' (= ''{{color|blue|When}} there is no sun''), '''{{color|blue|Tsēd o le}} bul tykmeś stā, pū nat'''
| |
|
| |
| When in the main clause there is an imperative form, the hypothetical particle can be dropped.
| |
| * '''Ma ȳd fut piǵ fa {{color|blue|fōr}}, ma vēbeg fa si!''', ''{{color|blue|If}} you saw a snake, run away!''
| |
|
| |
|
| ==Lexycon== | | ==Lexycon== |
