Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Bilabial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Labio-velar
|
Uvular
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
n
|
ɲ
|
ŋ
|
|
(ɴ)
|
| "Clear" plosive
|
p b
|
t d
|
c ɟ
|
k g
|
|
q ɢ
|
| Aspirated plosive
|
pʰ bʰ
|
tʰ dʰ
|
cʰ ɟʰ
|
kʰ gʰ
|
|
qʰ ɢʰ
|
| Ejective plosive
|
pʼ
|
tʼ
|
cʼ
|
kʼ
|
|
qʼ
|
| Implosive
|
ɓ
|
ɗ
|
ʄ
|
ɠ
|
|
ʛ
|
| Fricative
|
|
s
|
|
|
|
|
| Trill
|
|
r
|
|
|
|
(ʀ)
|
| Approximant
|
|
l
|
j
|
|
w
|
|
Spelling
- /p t c k q/ p t c k q
- /pʰ tʰ cʰ kʰ qʰ/ ph th ch kh qh
- /pʼ tʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ/ p̕ t̕ c̕ k̕ q̕
- /b d ɟ g ɢ/ b d j g ġ
- /bʰ dʰ ɟʰ gʰ ɢʰ/ bh dh jh gh ġh
- /ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ/ b̕ d̕ j̕ g̕ ġ̕
- /s/ s
- /m n ɲ ŋ~ɴ/ m n ṇ ŋ
- /r~ʀ l/ r l
- /j w/ y w
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Unrounded
|
Rounded
|
| Close
|
iː
|
|
|
uː
|
| Near-Close
|
|
ɪ
|
ʊ
|
|
| Mid-Close
|
eː
|
ɘ
|
ɵ
|
oː
|
| Mid-Open
|
ɛː
|
ɜ
|
ɞ
|
ɔː
|
| Open
|
|
ä äː
|
|
|
Spelling
- /iː uː/ í ú
- /eː oː/ é ó
- /ɛː ɔː/ ê ô
- /äː/ a
- /ɪ ʊ/ i u
- /ɘ ɵ/ e o
- /ɜ ɞ/ è ò
- /ä/ a
Phonotactics
(C)(C)V(ː)(R/s)(C)
Accent
- Acute accent on initial syllable.
Grammar
Nouns
- nominative-accusative alignment with marked nominative
- 3A secundative alignment (S/A = Nominative, D = Pegative, P/R = Accusative, T = Instrumental)
- 8 cases (suffixal): Nominative, Pegative, Accusative, Instrumental, Genitive, Ablative, Allative, Benefactive
- noun class system (suffixal): Animate, Inanimate
- number combined with noun class: singular, paucal, plural
- definiteness (articles): Gnomic, Indefinite, Definite proper, Definite distant
- nominal tense (suffixal): past, present, future
Definiteness + [Root + Root extension(s) + (Noun class + Number) + Case + Nominal tense]
Noun class and number
|
|
Animate
|
Inanimate
|
| Singular
|
-ar- / -r-
|
banura
|
man
|
-
|
tkacʼa
|
stone
|
| Paucal
|
-akʼ- / -kʼ-
|
banuakʼa
|
few men
|
-akʼ- / -kʼ-
|
tkacʼakʼa
|
few stones
|
| Plural
|
-it- / -t-
|
banuita
|
men
|
-es- / -s-
|
tkacʼesa
|
stones
|
Declension
| Nominative
|
-a
|
wolqhara
|
wolf
|
| Pegative
|
-e
|
wolqhare
|
| Accusative
|
-
|
wolqhar
|
| Instrumental
|
-ní
|
wolqharní
|
by/with wolf
|
| Genitive
|
-yò
|
wolqharyò
|
of wolf
|
| Ablative
|
-tʼo
|
wolqhartʼo
|
from wolf
|
| Allative
|
-ôs
|
wolqharôs
|
to wolf
|
| Benefactive
|
-dʼa
|
wolqhardʼa
|
for wolf
|
Nominal tense
| Past
|
-li
|
kʼámarali
|
ex-wife
|
| Present
|
-
|
kʼámara
|
wife
|
| Future
|
-sú
|
kʼámarasú
|
future wife
|
Definiteness
| Gnomic
|
-
|
banu
|
man
|
| Indefinite
|
ês
|
ês banu
|
a man
|
| Definite proper
|
da
|
da banu
|
the man
|
| Definite distant
|
qhá
|
qhá banu
|
yonder man
|
Verbs
- aspects (suffixal): Perfective-Imperfective + Frequentative, Momentane
- voices (infixal): Active, Reflexive vs Causative
- three subjective and objective persons (suffixal)
- three moods (cliticized): Indicative, Conditional, Subjunctive
- negative verb
(Root + Voice) + Root extension(s) + Aspect + Subject + Object + Mood
Aspect
|
|
Main form
|
Frequentative
|
Momentane
|
| Imperfective
|
-
|
swél-
|
to shine
|
-né-
|
swélné-
|
to glisten
|
-
|
| Perfective
|
-ri-
|
swélri-
|
to lighten
|
-yu-
|
swélyu-
|
to glisten (as fully executed, ended series)
|
-tò-
|
swéltò-
|
to glint (as momentaneous event)
|
Voice
|
|
Performative
|
Causative
|
| Active
|
-
|
yôdh-
|
to see
|
-ra-
|
yôradh-
|
to show
|
| Reflexive
|
-si-
|
yôsidh-
|
to see self
|
-ṇi-
|
yôṇidh-
|
to show self
|
Person
Subject / Agent / Donor
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-en / -n
|
I
|
-erò / -rò
|
We, but not you
|
| -emò / -mò
|
We, together with you
|
| 2.
|
-es / -s
|
Thou
|
-etò / -tò
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
-ey / -y
|
He / she / it
|
-eyò / -yò
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
-ek / -k
|
Someone / something
|
Object / Recipient
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-na
|
me
|
-ra
|
us, but not you
|
| -me
|
us, together with you
|
| 2.
|
-sa
|
thee
|
-ta
|
you all
|
| 3.
|
-ya
|
him / her / it
|
-yak
|
them all
|
| 4.
|
-ka
|
Someone / something
|
Theme
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-n
|
I
|
-l
|
we, but not you
|
| -w
|
we, together with you
|
| 2.
|
-s
|
Thou
|
-th
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
-j
|
He / she / it
|
-j
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
-kh
|
Someone / something
|
Mood
| Indicative
|
-
|
êd
|
to go
|
| Conditional
|
-dô
|
êddô
|
would to go
|
| Subjunctive
|
-phú
|
êdphú
|
may to go
|
Non-finite verbs
| Action noun
|
-ló
|
yôdhló
|
vision, seeing
|
| Participles
|
| Adjectival
|
-l-
|
yôdhl-
|
seeing
|
| Adverbial
|
-l-oŋ
|
yôdhloŋ
|
seeing
|
Adjectives
- adjectives are replaced by stative verbs and describing nouns.
- degrees of intensify are instead degrees of comparison.
Pronouns
- clusivity in 1. person
- obviative
Adpositions
Syntax
