Kala Grammar
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pronunciation
- Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.
vowels
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i~i: (i) | u~u: (u) | |
Mid | e~e: (e) | o~o: (o) | |
Open | a~a: (a) |
diphthongs
- Both of the falling diphthongs as well as uai and yao only occur word finally.
falling
- [aɪ~aɪ:] - ai
- [aʊ~aʊ:] - ao
rising
- [wa~wa:] - ua
- [waɪ~waɪ:] - uai
- [ja~ja:] - ya
- [jaʊ~jaʊ:] - yao
- [je~je:] - ye
- [jo~jo:] - yo
consonants
Labial | Dental | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
central | lateral | plain | labial | ||||
Nasal | m (m) | n (n) | ɲ (ny) | ||||
Plosive | p~b (p) | t~d (t) | k~g (k) | ʔ (') | |||
Fricative | s (s) | ʃ (s) | h~ɦ (h) | ||||
Affricate | ts (ts) | tɬ (tl) | tʃ (ts) | ||||
Approximant | l~r (l) | j (y) | w (u) |
allophony
- /h/ > /ɦ/ when preceded or followed by a front vowel.
- The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above. It is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs that are not connected.
- <s> & <ts> are /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, unless immediately preceded or followed by one another, then <s> is always /s/ and <ts> is always /tʃ/.
- However, one could pronounce them either way (e.g. always /s/ & /ts/) and still be understood.
- Example:
- sitsa - /'si:.tʃa/ - warmth, heat / warm, hot / to heat up
- tsasu - /'tʃa:.su/ - cursive writing; having successive letters joined together
phonotactics
- Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized.
- There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of father, etc.
- Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword.
syllable structure
- See also: Syllables
- (N)(C)V/D(F)
- N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
- C - consonant
- V - vowel
- D - diphthong
- F - final; coda
- The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.
stress
- In Kala stress falls on the penultimate syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is ultimate.
prenasalized consonants
- In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases of syllabic /n/ or /m/.
- mp /ᵐp~ᵐb/
- Example: mpaka /ˈᵐpa.ka/ - n - boundary / border / line
- nt /ⁿt~ⁿd/
- Example: ntama /ˈⁿta.ma/ - n - calf (a young cow or bull)
- nk /ᵑk~ᵑ/
- Example: nkapa /ˈᵑka.pa/ - n - alcohol / grog
sentence structure
See also: Kala Sentences
- Most sentences in Kala contain a verb phrase, typically denoting the occurrence of an action. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers.
- Most sentences also contain at least one noun phrase, typically denoting a person or thing. A noun phrase consists of a noun plus any modifiers.
- The two most important noun phrases are the subject and the object. Their exact meaning depends on the choice of verb, but
- loosely speaking, the subject is the person or thing that carries out the action, and the object is the person or thing that is directly affected by the action.
- Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles).
word order
- Kala phrase structure can be represented as follows:
- (temporal adverb) subject-(modifier) (particle) ((object)-(modifier)) verb-(modifier) (particle)
- or, more simply SOV
parts of speech
verbs
- A typical verb denotes the occurrence or abandonment of an action (run, stop), a relationship (have, lose), or a state (stand, melt). Most verbs can be reused without change as a noun.
tense
tense | suffix | gloss | example |
---|---|---|---|
remote past | -yeha | REM | nam inayeha We ate a long while ago. |
recent past | -yehi | REC | nam inayehi We just ate. |
past | -ye | PST | nam inaye We ate. |
present | not marked | nam ina We eat. / We are eating. / We do eat. | |
future | -tli | FUT | nam inatli We will eat. |
immediate future | -tlihi | IMM | nam inatlihi We will eat soon/now. |
distant future | -tliha | DIS | nam inatliha We will eat a long while from now. |
- Kala does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. "I ate", "I used to eat", "I have eaten", "I had eaten").
- If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
- Example: We ate yesterday.
yomaye nam ina day-pst 1pl eat
modifiers
usage | suffix | from | example |
---|---|---|---|
ability, can | -pa | pala to be able, can |
na yalapa I am able to go. |
attempt, try | -pya | upya to attempt; to try |
na yalapya I am trying to leave. |
negation | -k | nke no, not; negative |
na yalak I am not going. |
beginning, initiate | -mu | mula start; begin |
na yalamu I begin to go. / I'm starting to leave. |
permission; allow | -myo | myonta to allow; permit |
na yalamyo I am allowed to go. |
should, ought to | -ne | neya should, to ought to |
na yalane I should go. |
need, necessity | -he | heya to need; require |
na yalahe I need to go. |
deintensify | -hi | ahi small; little |
na inahi I am snacking. |
appear, seem | -tse | tse'e to seem; appearance |
ha yalatse He seems to be going. |
want, desire | -ue | ueha to want; desire |
na yalaue I want to go. |
intention, volition | -ue | ueyo to intend to |
na yalaue I intend to go. |
nouns
- Nouns include pronouns, adjectives (nouns of quality), and determiners.
plurality
- A countable noun (or "count noun") can be modified by a number, and can accept the plural. Typical countable nouns represent objects that are clearly individual entities, such as houses, cats, and thoughts. For example:
root | usage | example | |
---|---|---|---|
-m | ma | general plural | tsakam houses |
-mha | ma + -ha | indefinite abundance | tsakamha many/a lot houses |
-mi | ma + -hi | indefinite insufficiency | tsakami few houses |
tli- | tatli | collective plural | tlikuma sleuth of bears |
-lo | ma | alternative to -m | yamalo mountains |
- When modified by a number, general plurals need not be marked. Example:
- tsaka ta'o - Two houses.
affect / degree
- The diminutive is formed with -hi, and the augmentative with -ha.
These are respectively realized as -ki and -ka when attached to a word that has a final syllable onset of /h/.
- Example : ina - food, meal | inahi - snack, morsel | inaha - feast, banquet
- Example : tsaka - house, home, dwelling | tsakahi - shack, hut, cabin | tsakaha - palace, mansion
- These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
- Example : yanahi - light yellow, kuyaha - dark green
comparative / superlative
- In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
- Example
- tahaka
- bigger/biggest
- tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka
- house 3sg-poss obj 1sg-poss big-aug
- His house is bigger than mine.
- Example
- yanaha
- more yellow/most yellow
- ke mauam tayo yanaha
- obj flower.pl 2sg-poss yellow-aug
- Your flowers are the most yellow.
gender
- Nouns do not normally indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, the suffixes -ta and -na are used:
- uma - horse
- umata - a male horse, a stallion
- umana - a female horse, a mare
pronouns
- Kala generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
- There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
Nominative | Accusative | Possessive | Reflexive | Reciprocal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1sg | na | ena | nayo | na'i | |
2sg | ta | eta | tayo | ta'i | |
3sg | ha | eha | hayo | ha'i | |
4sg | tla | etla | tlayo | tla'i | |
1pl | nam | enam | namyo | nami | nanku |
1pl.excl | na'am | ena'am | na'amyo | na'ami | na'anku |
2pl | tam | etam | tamyo | tami | tanku |
3pl | kam | ekam | kamyo | kami | kanku |
4pl | tlam | etlam | tlamyo | tlami | tlanku |
- Example:
eta nahe tsaka hayo a acc-2sg inside house 3sg-poss be
correlative pronouns
query | proximal | medial | distal | indefinite | negative | ambiguous | universal | generalized | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
adjective | ote which |
itla this |
uatla that |
yetla that (there) |
iha some |
-k none |
ula any |
kua every |
ote whichever |
person | ko who |
iko this person |
uako that person |
yeko that person (there) |
hyako someone |
tlok no one |
kola anyone |
tlokua everyone |
teko who(m)ever |
thing | ke what |
itla this |
uatla that |
yetla that (there) |
hyano something |
nok no thing |
nola anything |
nokua everything |
ote whatever |
time | ama when |
ima now |
uama then |
yeme then (yon) |
hyama sometime |
amak never |
tlama anytime |
kuama always |
tema whenever |
place | mo where |
hina here |
uana there |
yemo there (away) |
hyamo somewhere |
mok nowhere |
mola anywhere |
mokua everywhere |
temo wherever |
way | to how |
yoto thus |
hyato somehow |
tok no way |
heto however | ||||
amount | uku how many |
ok none |
teku however much/many | ||||||
reason | nye why |
tenye whyever |
- To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and ka is placed at the end. Example:
- tam yala - 2pl go - You all are going.
- ama tam yala ka - time 2pl go q - When are you all going?
compound sentences (subordinate clauses)
- While he was spearing mudbugs, he heard a dog singing.
- If you want good beer, you should make your own beer.
- While looking for tubers, I saw a nun in a clearing.
- If you ate the toad (which you might have), you might get sick.
- If you ate the toad (which you didn't), you would be dead.
adjectives
- Kala uses verbs instead of having proper adjectives. For example;
- na nyota
- 1sg thirst
- I am thirsty.
- tla kiha
- 4sg be.tall
- It is tall. (lit: it talls)
- nam ke punka ketla inaye
- 1pl obj fruit be.red eat-pst
- We ate the red fruit.
adverbs
- An adverbial precedes the clause it modifies.
- I drank thirstily.
nyotan na inuye thirst.adv 1sg drink-pst
- She will sleep quietly.
kyo'an ha mokutli quiet.adv 3sg sleep-fut
prepositions & conjunctions
prepositions
- relational
- taye - pertaining to; regarding; about; a matter of
- te - of; from [gen]
- mahe - approximately; around; close to
- ma'a - with [accompanied by; furnished with]; together
- ma'ak - without; with no ...
- nya - for [benefit; purpose of], [ben]; by [actor; author]
- atse - opposite; the other side
- spatial
- pue - back; behind; rear
- tahe - below; under; beneath; underneath
- kaye - around; encircling; surrounding
- ka'e - to; towards; at [moving toward]
- maye - between; among
- ma'e - before; ahead of; in front of
- nahe - into; within; in [located inside of]
- saye - along; following [a line]
- hue - at [in the same location as]
- tsa'e - across ; through; beyond; past
- atse - across; opposite; the other side
- enye - outside of; exterior to
- uaye - from [moving out of or away from]
- ua'e - above; over [space]
- yane - beside; by; next to; near; close to
- temporal
- pue - afterwards; after; later
- ma'e - before; earlier
- naye - during; hence
- tsaye - since; until
conjunctions
- ma - and; also; too; as well
- me - but, however, and not
- ua - or
- - so, therefore
- ke - that, whether
- ama - when (temporal)
- naye - while, during, as
- iya - if (conditional)
- nye - because, since
- - in order that (purpose)
- - even when, even if, albeit, still
- - anyway, although, on the other hand
relative clauses
- He broke the bone which I gave him.
- ha ke ueso na'eha yetaye tanyaye
- 3sg p bone 1sg-a.p-3sg give-pst break-pst
- I saw the car that he bought.
- na ke nkale ha tsumpaye anyaye
- 1sg p car 3sg buy-pst see-pst
interjections
- a - yes
- ak - no
- nka - no! emp.neg
- yata - hello / goodbye
- hala - hey, hi (on the phone)
- tsepa - please
- nyasa - thank you
- hako - you're welcome
- niha - fine, OK, great
cursing
- katse - epithet; similar to "bastard", "bitch" or "asshole."
- kuna - shit (lit: to defecate)
- kyosa - fornicate; have sex
- nanka - general invective; "Damn it!"
- tsaya (-tsa) - general invective; "Fuck!" or "Shit!"
- eta kuna
- p.2sg shit
- You are shat. / You are shit.
- kya ta'i kyosa
- imp 2sg.refl fornicate
- Fuck yourself!
- onatsa tayo
- mother.damned 2sg.poss
- mother fucker / your damned mother
numbers
cardinal numbers
- e'o - zero; null
- na'o - one
- ta'o - two
- ha'o - three
- ma'o - four
- ya'o - five
- tsa'o - six
- ka'o - seven
- pa'o - eight
- sa'o - nine
- ue'o - ten
-
- nye'o - (one) hundred; 102
- nya'o - five hundred
- tle'o - (one) thousand; 103
- mue'o - ten thousand; 104
- kye'o - (one) hundred thousand; 105
- nte'o - (one) million; 106
- hue'o - (one) billion; 109
higher numbers
- uena'o - eleven / 11
- taue'o - twenty / 20
- nyeka'o - one hundred seven / 107
- hanyetauetsa'o (long form) | hatatsa'o (short form) - three hundred twenty six / 326
- tsatletauema'o - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
expressions of time
- Tense markers are often replaced by time expressions. Here are a few of the more common ones:
- iyoma - today
- iyohua - tonight
- yomaye - yesterday
- yomatli - tomorrow
- yomua - morning
- puama - evening
- yomuatli - tomorrow morning
- yohuaye - last night
- sayo - month
- anyo - year
- anyotlipua - end of next year
- anyoye ue'o - ten years ago
- sayotli ta'o - in two months
ordering of phrases
- I will eat pig.
- It is pig that I will eat.
- He broke the bone.
- The bone broke/was broken.
- I was bitten.
- He wants to be beaten.
- The broken bone.
- I gave the fruit to the child.
- I gave (it) to the child.
- I gave the fruit.
- The fruit was given to the child.
- Give (me) the big bone now.
causative constructions
- Constructions with -mya (from muya), to do, make:
- I am making the beer.
- I am keeping him from eating.
- I will kill him.
- What did you kill?
- Note: In English, verbs can be transitive or intransitive, as in "The house burned" or "I burned the house". In Kala, a causative construction is used:
- The house is burning.
- I am burning the house.
compounding
- Kala compounding is right-branching. Kala also reduces redundant syllables.
- nyepana - raincloud
- nyepa - cloud
- pana - rain
- ilamo - airport
- ila - fly; hover
- mo - place; locale
creating nouns from verbs
- A noun can be created from a verb root, as with ina, to eat:
- inako - eater
- inano - food, thing eaten
- inama - eating-time
- inamo - eating-place
- inamya - act of eating
- inanyoo - eating instrument
- inape - portion of food, meal
- inato - manner of eating