Lánc
Lantian (in language: Lánc) is a constructed fantasy language. It is quite different from English, but its grammar and syntax doesn't differ very much from other Indo-European languages.
Phonology
Consonants
This is the consonant system in the IPA consonant table:
| Bilabial | Labio- dental |
Dental | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | ||||||||
| Nasal | ||||||||
| Vibrant | ||||||||
| Fricative | ||||||||
| Affricate | ||||||||
| Approximant | ||||||||
| Lateral approximant | ||||||||
- 1: Allophone of [m] before labiodental consonants
- 2: Allophone of [n] before velar consonant
Palatalization
Some consonants come in pair with a palatalized counterpart:
| Non-palatalized consonant | Palatalized counterpart |
|---|---|
| k | č |
| g | dž |
| s | š |
| z | ž |
| t | č |
| d | dž |
This phenomenon, called palatalization, is very common, usually (but not always) when one of these consonants comes in contact with the semivowel [j]. It's very important, because it occurs many times in noun declension.
Vowels
| Front | Near-front | Central | Near-back | Back | ||
| Close |
| |||||
| Close-mid | ||||||
| Mid | ||||||
| Open-mid | ||||||
| Open | ||||||
Nouns
Nouns have no genre, as in English, but they flect according for number and case. The case show the role the word plays in sentences. In English it is shown by the position of the word within its sentence, but here nouns are flected by adding some endings to their root.
The root of a name usually is the nominative singular form.
There are 8 cases, and their main roles:
- Nominative: it plays the role of the subject.
- Genitive: it shows possession, proper or indirect.
- Dative: it plays the role of the indirect object.
- Accusative: it plays the role of the indirect object
- Instrumental: it has many roles, the main one is that of preposition with.
- Locative: it shows the static position.
- Adlative: it shows the destination of a movement.
- Delative: it shows the origin of a movement.
For number, nouns flect in singular, plural and dual forms. The dual number indicates a pair of things. It has a lesser number of endings, only four, with consonant and vowel counteparts.
Declension
There are two separated declension patterns, one for the nouns which end in consonant, and one for the nouns which end in vowel.
| Singular | ||
|---|---|---|
| Case | Consonant | Vowel |
| Nominative | - | - |
| Genitive | -u | -w |
| Dative | -a | -ja |
| Accusative | -o | -wo |
| Instrumental | -en | -jen |
| Locative | -ot | -jot |
| Adlative | -ás | -jás |
| Delative | -ád | -jád |
If a noun already ends with -u, the genitive ending in the singular melds with this vowel and becomes -ú.
- mázu (house) ‣ mázú
| Plural | ||
|---|---|---|
| Case | Consonant | Vowel |
| Nominative | -y | -j |
| Genitive | -yw | -ju |
| Dative | -ya | -jay |
| Accusative | -yo | -joy |
| Instrumental | -yen | -jeyn |
| Locative | -yt | -jyt |
| Adlative | -ýs | -jýs |
| Delative | -ýd | -jýd |
| Dual | ||
|---|---|---|
| Case | Consonant | Vowel |
| Nominative Accusative |
-et | -t |
| Genitive Dative Adlative |
-etu | -ču |
| Instrumental Delative |
-etyn | -čyn |
| Locative | -ec | -ciw |
Examples:
| stuv = village, town | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | stuv | stuvy | stuvet |
| Genitive | stuvu | stuvyw | stuvetu |
| Dative | stuva | stuvya | stuvetu |
| Accusative | stuvo | stuvyo | stuvet |
| Instrumental | stuven | stuvyen | stuvetyn |
| Locative | stuvot | stuvyt | stuvec |
| Adlative | stuvás | stuvýs | stuvetu |
| Delative | stuvád | stuvýd | stuvetyn |
| mila = woman | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | mila | milaj | milat |
| Genitive | milaw | milaju | milaču |
| Dative | milaja | milajay | milaču |
| Accusative | milawo | milajoy | milat |
| Instrumental | milajen | milajeyn | milačyn |
| Locative | milajot | milajyt | milaciw |
| Adlative | milajás | milajýs | milaču |
| Delative | milajád | milajýd | milačyn |
Palatalized declension
Some nouns, even if they end with a consonant, follow the vowel declension pattern. In this case their last consonant undergoes palatalization, except for the nominative and genitive in the singular, and for all cases in dual. If there is a long vowel, when palatalization occurs, the vowel gets short.
| krís = king | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | krís | krišy | kríset |
| Genitive | krísu | krišu | krísetu |
| Dative | kriša | krišay | krísetu |
| Accusative | kríswo | krišoy | kríset |
| Instrumental | krišen | krišeyn | krísetyn |
| Locative | krišot | krišyt | krísec |
| Adlative | krišás | krišýs | krísetu |
| Delative | krišád | krišýd | krísetyn |
Other nouns which undergo palatalization are: ák (water ‣ plur. ačy), héd (mother ‣ plur. hedžy), lók (head ‣ plur. ločy), nát (father ‣ plur. načy), pýk (house ‣ plur. pyčy), úk (name ‣ plur. učy)
Article
There is only the form for the definite article (the): ó. It has to be declined according to its noun.
| ó = the | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | ó | ony | ont |
| Genitive | onu | onju | onču |
| Dative | ona | onja | onču |
| Accusative | ono | onjo | ont |
| Instrumental | onen | onjen | ontyn |
| Locative | onot | onyt | onec |
| Adlative | onás | onýs | onču |
| Delative | onád | onýd | ontyn |
Adjectives
The adjectives must agree with their nouns in number and case, but only in attributive position. In prepositive position adjectives are not declined:
- Attributive position: nom.: dén mila (a good woman), gen.: dénu milaw (of a good woman)
- Prepositive position: ó mila dén ér (the woman is good), ony milaj dén eruk (the women are good)
Declension
The adjectival declension follows the nominal declension's pattern, with the distinction between consonant and vowel endings. Adjectives always come before their nouns, except for participles, that can occur after.
If the adjective comes before a nouns which is definited, it melds with the article, and it uses the definite adjectival declension.
- Dén mila: a good woman
- Dénon mila: the good woman
- Dényenon milajeyn: with the good women
Here there are samples from two adjectives:
| dén = good | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | dénon | dényjon | déneton |
| Genitive | dénun | dénywon | dénetun |
| Dative | dénan | dényajon | dénetun |
| Accusative | dénon | dényojon | déneton |
| Instrumental | dénenon | dényenon | dénetynon |
| Locative | dénoton | dényton | dénecon |
| Adlative | dénáson | dénýson | dénetun |
| Delative | dénádon | dénýdon | dénetynon |
| pana = high | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | panan | panajon | panaton |
| Genitive | panawon | panajun | panačun |
| Dative | panajan | panajayn | panačun |
| Accusative | panawon | panajoyn | panaton |
| Instrumental | panajenon | panajeynon | panačynon |
| Locative | panajoton | panajyton | panaciwon |
| Adlative | panajáson | panajýson | panačun |
| Delative | panajádon | panajýdon | panačynon |
If the adjective falls after the noun, it never use the definite declension, and the article appears before the noun:
- ó mila okeláv = the woman who loved
Comparison
There are two degrees of comparison: the comparative form and the superlative form:
They are formed by adding prefixes to the normal form of the adjective:
- Comparative: add pu- (mantaining the -): dén ‣ pu-dén
- Superlative: add saj- (mantaining the -): dén ‣ saj-dén
The second term of the comparison for comparative form is introduced by ča:
- lak mila pu-lán ča šik ér: this woman is more beautiful than that one
Pronouns
Personal
These are the forms of personal pronouns:
| Case | I | You (thou) | He | She | It |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. | kí | to | za | hí | héj |
| Gen. | kiju | tow | zaw | hiju | heju |
| Dat. | kija | toja | zaja | hija | heja |
| Acc. | kijo | tó | zao | hijo | hejo |
| Instr. | kijen | tojen | zajen | hijen | hejen |
| Loc. | kijot | tojot | zajot | hijot | hejot |
| Adl. | kijás | tojás | zajás | hijás | hejás |
| Del. | kijád | tojád | zajád | hijád | hejád |
| Case | We | You (plur.) | They (m) | They (f) | They (mixed) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. | vój | rí | zí | bí | mí |
| Gen. | voju | riju | ziju | biju | miju |
| Dat. | vojay | rijay | zijay | bijay | mijay |
| Acc. | vojo | rijo | zijo | bijo | mijo |
| Instr. | vojen | rijen | zijen | bijen | mijen |
| Loc. | vojyt | rijyt | zijyt | bijyt | mijyt |
| Adl. | vojýs | rijýs | zijýs | bijýs | mijýs |
| Del. | vojýd | rijýd | zijýd | bijýd | mijýd |
| Case | We two | You two | They two |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. | vóje | rije | mije |
| Gen. | vojču | ríjču | mijču |
| Dat. | vojču | ríjču | mijču |
| Acc. | voje | rije | mije |
| Instr. | vojčyn | rijčyn | mijčyn |
| Loc. | vojciw | rijciw | mijciw |
| Adl. | vojču | ríjču | mijču |
| Del. | vojčyn | rijčyn | mijčyn |
Relative
These are the forms of the relative pronoun:
| ksé = that, which, who | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | ksé | kší | kset |
| Genitive | ksew | kšú | kseču |
| Dative | kšá | kšáy | kseču |
| Accusative | ksewo | kšóy | kset |
| Instrumental | kšén | kšéyn | ksečyn |
| Locative | kšót | kšýt | kseciw |
| Adlative | kšás | kšýs | kseču |
| Delative | kšád | kšýd | ksečyn |
These forms are used more rarely than in English, because in relative sentences participles are more actively used.
Interrogative
| má = what | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | má | maj | mjet |
| Genitive | maw | mju | mječu |
| Dative | maja | mjay | mječu |
| Accusative | mó | mjoy | mjet |
| Instrumental | mén | mjeyn | mječyn |
| Locative | mjot | mjyt | mjeciw |
| Adlative | mjás | mjýs | mječu |
| Delative | mjád | mjýd | mječyn |
| mé = who | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | mé | mej | mejet |
| Genitive | mew | meju | meječu |
| Dative | meja | mejay | meječu |
| Accusative | mewo | mejoy | mejet |
| Instrumental | mejen | mejeyn | meječyn |
| Locative | mejot | mejyt | mejeciw |
| Adlative | mejás | mejýs | meječu |
| Delative | mejád | mejýd | meječyn |
Verbs
Verbs have a rich system of conjugation. There are one infinitival form, 3 participles, 4 moods and at least 5 tenses in the indicative mood. Verbs do conjugate according to the person, with different endings for each person, in singular, plural and dual. Each form has a passive counterpart, because there is a separated passive conjugation.
Verbs are divided in two conjugation patterns, depending on their infinitival endings:
- 1st conjugation = -uč
- 2nd conjugation = -or
By dropping these endings we'll get the verbal root, basis of verbal conjugation.
Infinitive
This is the infinitival form, that you'll find in dictionaries.
We'll use two sample verbs, to show the conjugation:
| to Love | to Eat |
|---|---|
| Keluč | Setor |
Participles
Verbs have three participles: present participle, past participle, and future participle, which doesn't exist in English, but express the same meaning of the other two participles but in the future.
| Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|
| keláv | okeláv | tekeláv |
| setáv | osetáv | tesetáv |
The past participle has an active meaning; osetáv doesn't mean that has been eaten, but which has eaten.
The vowel in the -áv ending gets short when declined:
- nom. keláv (loving) ‣ gen. kelavu (of loving)
Participles are very important in the construction of relative sentences.
Indicative
The indicative mood is the mood of reality, that shows happenings, tales, indications, etc. It has 5 tenses. Two tenses are simple, three tenses add prefixes.
Present
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | kelu | setu |
| 2nd sing. | keluc | setec |
| 3rd sing. | kele | sete |
| 1st plu. | kelun | seten |
| 2nd plu. | keluj | setej |
| 3rd plu. | keluk | setek |
| 1st dual | kelune | setene |
| 2nd dual | keluje | seteje |
| 3rd dual | keluke | seteke |
Past
The past tense marks an action, occured in the past. It is formed by adding the infix -uv- for the 1st conjugation or -ev for the 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, except for the 3rd person in singular, which adds nothing.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | keluvu | setevu |
| 2nd sing. | keluvec | setevec |
| 3rd sing. | keluv | setev |
| 1st plu. | keluven | seteven |
| 2nd plu. | keluvej | setevej |
| 3rd plu. | keluvek | setevek |
| 1st dual | keluvene | setevene |
| 2nd dual | keluveje | seteveje |
| 3rd dual | keluveke | seteveke |
Future
The future tense marks an action, which will occur in the future. It is formed by adding the infix -us- for the 1st conjugation or -es for the 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, and by adding the prefix te(k)- before the main root.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | tekelusu | tesetesu |
| 2nd sing. | tekelusec | tesetesec |
| 3rd sing. | tekeluse | tesetese |
| 1st plu. | tekelusen | tesetesen |
| 2nd plu. | tekelusej | tesetesej |
| 3rd plu. | tekelusek | tesetesek |
| 1st dual | tekelusene | tesetesene |
| 2nd dual | tekeluseje | teseteseje |
| 3rd dual | tekeluseke | teseteseke |
Plusquamperfect
The plusquamperfect tense marks an action, occured in the past of another past action. It is formed by adding the prefix o(k)- to the forms of the past tense.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | okeluvu | osetevu |
| 2nd sing. | okeluvec | osetevec |
| 3rd sing. | okeluv | osetev |
| 1st plu. | okeluven | oseteven |
| 2nd plu. | okeluvej | osetevej |
| 3rd plu. | okeluvek | osetevek |
| 1st dual | okeluvene | osetevene |
| 2nd dual | okeluveje | oseteveje |
| 3rd dual | okeluveke | oseteveke |
Future in the past
The future in the past tense marks an action, occured in the future of another past action. It is formed by adding the prefix o(k)- to the forms of the future tense.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | otekelusu | otesetesu |
| 2nd sing. | otekelusec | otesetesec |
| 3rd sing. | otekeluse | otesetese |
| 1st plu. | otekelusen | otesetesen |
| 2nd plu. | otekelusej | otesetesej |
| 3rd plu. | otekelusek | otesetesek |
| 1st dual | otekelusene | otesetesene |
| 2nd dual | otekeluseje | oteseteseje |
| 3rd dual | otekeluseke | oteseteseke |
Subjunctive
The subjunctive mood is the mood of doubt, uncertainty, possibility, etc. It is very used in subordinate clauses. It has 3 tenses. Two tenses are simple, one tense adds prefixes. Subjunctive is marked by the infixed vowel -a-, which replaces the -e/u- alternance in the indicative.
Present
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | kela | seta |
| 2nd sing. | kelac | setac |
| 3rd sing. | kela | seta |
| 1st plu. | kelan | setan |
| 2nd plu. | kelaj | setaj |
| 3rd plu. | kelak | setak |
| 1st dual | kelane | setane |
| 2nd dual | kelaje | setaje |
| 3rd dual | kelake | setake |
Past
The past tense marks a possible, uncertain action, which could occur in the past. It is formed by adding the infix -av- for the 1st and 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, except for the 3rd person in singular, which adds nothing.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | kelavu | setavu |
| 2nd sing. | kelavec | setavec |
| 3rd sing. | kelav | setav |
| 1st plu. | kelaven | setaven |
| 2nd plu. | kelavej | setavej |
| 3rd plu. | kelavek | setavek |
| 1st dual | kelavene | setavene |
| 2nd dual | kelaveje | setaveje |
| 3rd dual | kelaveke | setaveke |
Future
The future tense marks a possible, uncertain action, which can occur in the future. It is formed by adding the infix -as- for the 1st and 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, and by adding the prefix te(k)- before the main root.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | tekelasu | tesetasu |
| 2nd sing. | tekelasec | tesetasec |
| 3rd sing. | tekelase | tesetase |
| 1st plu. | tekelasen | tesetasen |
| 2nd plu. | tekelasej | tesetasej |
| 3rd plu. | tekelasek | tesetasek |
| 1st dual | tekelasene | tesetasene |
| 2nd dual | tekelaseje | tesetaseje |
| 3rd dual | tekelaseke | tesetaseke |
Optative
The optative is the mood of whish, probability, will. It is very used in subordinate clauses. It has 3 tenses. Two tenses are simple, one tense adds prefixes. Optative is marked by the infixed vowel -i-, which replaces the -e/u- alternance in the indicative.
Present
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | keli | seti |
| 2nd sing. | kelic | setic |
| 3rd sing. | keli | seti |
| 1st plu. | kelin | setin |
| 2nd plu. | kelij | setij |
| 3rd plu. | kelik | setik |
| 1st dual | keline | setine |
| 2nd dual | kelije | setije |
| 3rd dual | kelike | setike |
Past
The past tense marks a wish, a probability, which could occur in the past. It is formed by adding the infix -iv- for the 1st and 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, except for the 3rd person in singular, which adds nothing.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | kelivu | setivu |
| 2nd sing. | kelivec | setivec |
| 3rd sing. | keliv | setiv |
| 1st plu. | keliven | setiven |
| 2nd plu. | kelivej | setivej |
| 3rd plu. | kelivek | setivek |
| 1st dual | kelivene | setivene |
| 2nd dual | keliveje | setiveje |
| 3rd dual | keliveke | setiveke |
Future
The future tense marks a wish, a probability, which can occur in the future. It is formed by adding the infix -is- for the 1st and 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, and by adding the prefix te(k)- before the main root.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | tekelisu | tesetisu |
| 2nd sing. | tekelisec | tesetisec |
| 3rd sing. | tekelise | tesetise |
| 1st plu. | tekelisen | tesetisen |
| 2nd plu. | tekelisej | tesetisej |
| 3rd plu. | tekelisek | tesetisek |
| 1st dual | tekelisene | tesetisene |
| 2nd dual | tekeliseje | tesetiseje |
| 3rd dual | tekeliseke | tesetiseke |
Imperative
The imperative mood is the mood of orders. It has only one tense with special endings.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | - | - |
| 2nd sing. | kel | set |
| 3rd sing. | kela | seta |
| 1st plu. | keljen | setjen |
| 2nd plu. | kelač | setač |
| 3rd plu. | kelak | setak |
| 1st dual | keljene | setjene |
| 2nd dual | kelače | setače |
| 3rd dual | kelake | setake |
Passive declension
Verbs form their passive counterparts by adding a suffix, not as in English. So there is a separated passive declension:
- He opens the door: ono erkowo pále
- The door is opened by him: ó erko zajen páles
The passive form is formed by adding the suffix -s after a vowel, and -is after a consonant.
Examples: The present tense:
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | kelus | setus |
| 2nd sing. | kelucis | setecis |
| 3rd sing. | keles | setes |
| 1st plu. | kelunis | setenis |
| 2nd plu. | kelujis | setejis |
| 3rd plu. | kelukis | setekis |
| 1st dual | kelunes | setenes |
| 2nd dual | kelujes | setejes |
| 3rd dual | kelukes | setekes |
The agent of the passive sentence is expressed by the instrumental case:
- The pen was broken by his mother: ó póliec zawnen hedžen okrujzuvis
Participles takes different endings to form their passive counterparts:
| Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|
| kelát | okelát | tekelát |
| setát | osetát | tesetát |
They follow the declension of palatalizated nouns with vowel shortening of the final vowel:
- osetát (eaten) ‣ osetačy (plur.)
Verb Ervuč (to Be)
The verb ervuč (to Be) is irregular. These are its forms:
| Indicative | Present | Past | Future | Plusquamperfect | Future in the past |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | eru | ervu | tekersu | okervu | otekersu |
| 2nd sing. | erc | ervec | tekersec | okervec | otekersec |
| 3rd sing. | ér | erev | tekerse | okerev | otekerse |
| 1st plu. | ern | erven | tekersen | okerven | otekersen |
| 2nd plu. | ery | ervej | tekersej | okervej | otekersej |
| 3rd plu. | eruk | ervek | tekersek | okervek | otekersek |
| 1st dual | erne | ervene | tekersene | okervene | otekersene |
| 2nd dual | erje | erveje | tekerseje | okerveje | otekerseje |
| 3rd dual | eruke | erveke | tekerseke | okerveke | otekerseke |
| Subjunctive | Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | era | eravu | tekerasu |
| 2nd sing. | erac | eravec | tekerasec |
| 3rd sing. | era | erav | tekerase |
| 1st plu. | eran | eraven | tekerasen |
| 2nd plu. | eraj | eravej | tekerasej |
| 3rd plu. | erak | eravek | tekerasek |
| 1st dual | erane | eravene | tekerasene |
| 2nd dual | eraje | eraveje | tekeraseje |
| 3rd dual | erake | eraveke | tekeraseke |
| Optative | Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | eri | erivu | tekerisu |
| 2nd sing. | eric | erivec | tekerisec |
| 3rd sing. | eri | eriv | tekerise |
| 1st plu. | erin | eriven | tekerisen |
| 2nd plu. | erij | erivej | tekerisej |
| 3rd plu. | erik | erivek | tekerisek |
| 1st dual | erine | erivene | tekerisene |
| 2nd dual | erije | eriveje | tekeriseje |
| 3rd dual | erike | eriveke | tekeriseke |
| Imperative | Present |
|---|---|
| 1st sing. | - |
| 2nd sing. | ér |
| 3rd sing. | era |
| 1st plu. | erjen |
| 2nd plu. | érč |
| 3rd plu. | erak |
| 1st dual | erjene |
| 2nd dual | erče |
| 3rd dual | erake |
The participles are:
| Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|
| eráv | okeráv | tekeráv |
Verb Esor (to Have)
The verb esor (to Have) is irregular. These are its forms:
| Indicative | Present | Past | Future | Plusquamperfect | Future in the past |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | esu | esvu | tekesesu | okesvu | otekesesu |
| 2nd sing. | esec | esvec | tekesesec | okesvec | otekesesec |
| 3rd sing. | és | esev | tekesese | okesev | otekesese |
| 1st plu. | esn | esven | tekesesen | okesven | otekesesen |
| 2nd plu. | esy | esvej | tekesesej | okesvej | otekesesej |
| 3rd plu. | esuk | esvek | tekesesek | okesvek | otekesesek |
| 1st dual | esne | esvene | tekesesene | okesvene | otekesesene |
| 2nd dual | esje | esveje | tekeseseje | okesveje | otekeseseje |
| 3rd dual | esuke | esveke | tekeseseke | okesveke | otekeseseke |
| Subjunctive | Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | esa | esavu | tekesasu |
| 2nd sing. | esac | esavec | tekesasec |
| 3rd sing. | esa | esav | tekesase |
| 1st plu. | esan | esaven | tekesasen |
| 2nd plu. | esaj | esavej | tekesasej |
| 3rd plu. | esak | esavek | tekesasek |
| 1st dual | esane | esavene | tekesasene |
| 2nd dual | esaje | esaveje | tekesaseje |
| 3rd dual | esake | esaveke | tekesaseke |
| Optative | Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | esi | esivu | tekesisu |
| 2nd sing. | esic | esivec | tekesisec |
| 3rd sing. | esi | esiv | tekesise |
| 1st plu. | esin | esiven | tekesisen |
| 2nd plu. | esij | esivej | tekesisej |
| 3rd plu. | esik | esivek | tekesisek |
| 1st dual | esine | esivene | tekesisene |
| 2nd dual | esije | esiveje | tekesiseje |
| 3rd dual | esike | esiveke | tekesiseke |
| Imperative | Present |
|---|---|
| 1st sing. | - |
| 2nd sing. | és |
| 3rd sing. | esa |
| 1st plu. | esjen |
| 2nd plu. | esač |
| 3rd plu. | esak |
| 1st dual | esjene |
| 2nd dual | esače |
| 3rd dual | esake |
The participles are:
| Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|
| esáv | okesáv | tekesáv |
The most important feature of this verb is that its behaviour is different from its English countepart's one. The possession is expressed by another construction: The owned object is in the nominative case (i.e. it becomes the sentence's subject), then the verbs agree with it and the owner is declined in dative case. This occurs both for proper or aquired possession.
- Lók bánya čésya és: All human beings have a head (lit.: A head to all human beings has)
- Póliec kija és: I have a pen (lit.: A pen to me has)
Word formation
Noun → Noun
- To form a noun which refers to someone who sells something, the ending -jaš is added. This ending could palatalize the last consonant of palatalizable nouns, losing the [j]:
- Tále (book) ‣ tálejaš (bookseller)
- To form a noun which refers to the place, where someone is sold, the ending -(o)rám (from rámek, shop) is added:
- Tále (book) ‣ tálerám (bookshop)
Noun → Adjective
- One of the most common endings to change a noun into ist corrispective adjective is -ár. If the noun already ends with -r, the ending changes in -ál. When attached to a noun which usually undergoes palatalization with vowel shortening, these phenomena occur.
- čés (human being) ‣ čésár (human)
- úk (noun) ‣ učár (nominal)
- The adjectival ending for nouns, ending in a vowel, is -jer.
- mila (woman) ‣ milajer (feminine)
Syntax
Word order
The main word order is SOV, thus the parts of a sentences are placed so: Subject - Object - Verb. Usually the verb is placed at the end of the sentence, after all objects.
- The woman sees the man: Ó mila ono mono sálje (SOV)
Verbal usage
Subjunctive
The subjunctive mood expresses a general meaning of doubt, uncertainty or a future uncertain possibility. It is very used in subordinate clauses, with verbs indicating the same meanings, like valmor (to think), džébor (to doubt), netor (to believe), vylčuč (to seem), etc:
- I think he's working: valmu ža twača.
- They believe he bought a new book: néček ža lójo tálewo fýnav.
- She doubts you will come: džébe ža tekátjasec.
- It seems to me that he loves her: kija vylče ža hijo kela
The subjunctive is used also in conditional sentences (if-clauses), to express various meaning:
- in the present it expresses doubt, uncertain under condition:
- If I go, I perhaps could give her a rose: jék roča, hija rózewo kála.
- or an impossible condition:
- If I were the president, I would help all poor people: jék prezidént era, bánya fedenya wáča.
- in the future it expresses an uncertain probability, or an uncertain condition in the future:
- If I went, I perhaps would give her a rose: jék terojasu, hija rózewo tekálasu.
- in the past it expresses doubt about a past action, a uncertain possibility about another result of an action:
- If I had gone, I perhaps would have given her a rose: jék rojavu, hija rózewo kálavu.
Relative clause
The relative clauses are built in two ways:
- With the relative pronoun ksé:
- The child (that) you saw: ó píku, ksewo sáljevec.
- Do you see the man, who I gave a pen?: ono mono sáljec, kšá pólieco kálevu?
This costruction is quite similar to the English one, except for the fact that the relative pronoun can't be dropped.
- With participles (this is the most common way):
If the subject of the main clause and the one of the relative clause are the same, the participle simply replaces the pronoun, according to tense.
- The child who plays: ó píku klásáv (ó píku ksé kláse, more inusual)
- The man who gave me a book: ó mon, okáláv kija tálewo.
The participle has to agree with the noun in number and case, even if it remains the subject of the sentences.
- This is the house of the man, who gave me the book: héj pýk onu monu és, okálavu kija ono tálewo
If the subject of the two clauses is different, participles are used anyway, with a particular construction:
- The woman, who I gave a pen: ó mila, kí okáláv hija pólieco.
The construction is:
- [Main clause], SUBJECT + PARTICIPLE (in agree with subject) + PRONOUN (in agree with the relator of the main clause, but with the case required by the participle)
Usually passive participles are used to revert a relative clause with different subject:
- The child, whom I see: ó píku, kí sáljáv zao ‣ The child, which is seen by me: ó píku, sálját kijen.
Participles are conjugated in tense, according to the tense of the sentence:
-The man that will see you: ó mon tesáljáv tó
-The man that sees you: ó mon sáljáv tó
-The man that saw you: ó mon osáljáv tó
Lexycon
- aštuk: to sell
- atčut: to come (irr.: pres. aču, verbal root: átj-)
- ák (plur.: ačy): water
- bál: sky
- bán: all
- džéb: doubt
- džébor: to doubt
- erko: door
- fýnor: to buy
- héd (plur.: hedžy): mother
- krujzuč: to break
- lój: new
- lók (plur.: ločy): head
- lolor: to say
- mila: woman
- mon: man
- netor: to believ (irr.: verbal root: néč-)
- páluč: to open
- pana: high
- píku: child
- póliec: pen
- prezidént: president
- pýk (plur.: pyčy): house
- rokor: to go (irr.: pres. roču, sub pres. roča, opt pres. roči, verbal root: rój-)
- twák (plur.: twačy): work
- twákor: to work (irr.: verbal root: twač-)
- úk (plur.: učy): name
- valmor: to think
- vylčuč: to seem
- wakor: to help + DAT. (irr.: verbal root: wáč-)
- žanej: street
Irregular verbs
- átčut (to come), verbal root: átj-
- Indicative Present: aču, ačec, ače, ačun, ačuj, ačuk, ačune, ačuje, ačuke
(the rest of the verb adapts to the verbal root)
- rokor (to go), verbal root: rój-
- Indicative Present: roču, ročec, roče, ročen, ročej, roček, ročene, ročeje, ročeke
- Subjunctive Present: roča, ročac, roča, ročan, ročaj, ročak, ročane, ročaje, ročake
- Optative Present: roči, ročic, roči, ročin, ročij, ročik, ročine, ročije, ročike
(the rest of the verb adapts to the verbal root)
