Siye
| Siye | |
|---|---|
| Pronounced: | ['ʃi.je] |
| Timeline and Universe: | EJL Universe, Late 22nd century CE |
| Species: | Indigenous Martian Humanoid |
| Spoken: | Mars |
| Total speakers: | 20,000,000 (est.) |
| Writing system: | syllabic |
| Genealogy: | Tide:* Tiye |
| Typology | |
| Morphological type: | Agglutinating/Polysynthetic |
| Morphosyntactic alignment: | Split Ergative |
| Basic word order: | SOV |
| Credits | |
| Creator: | Linguarum Magister |
Phonology and Orthography
Phonology
/m/ [m], > [ⁿ]/V_#, V_C
/n/ [n]
/p/ [p], > [pʰ]/#_, [f]/_u, [ç]/_i
/t/ [t], > [tʰ]/#_, [ʦ]/_u, [ʦʰ]/#_u
/k/ [k] > [kʰ]/#_, [x]/_u, [ʧ]/_i, [ʧʰ]/#_i
/s/ [s] > [ʃ]/_i
/w/ [v]
/y/ [j]
/l/ [l]
/h/ [placeholder after /m/ [ⁿ]]
/i/ [i]
/im/ [ɪⁿ]
/e/ [e]
/em/ [ɛⁿ]
/a/ [a]
/am/ [aⁿ]
/o/ [o]
/om/ [ɔⁿ]
/u/ [u]
/um/ [ʊⁿ]
Vowel Dominance
Siye Vowel Dominance indicates which vowel will dominate in a vowel-vowel sequence. The Vowel Dominance hierarchy is listed below: /u/ > /o/ > /a/ > /e/ > /i/
The 3rd person animate subject prefix of the verb is -i- and therefore vanishes most of the time after the object prefixes. It is, however, present in /yi-/ and /umhi-/ and /tumhi-/.
Stress Placement
A Siye noun receives a primary accent on the first syllable. Thus /laye silime/ receives primary accents on /la/ and /si/. A Siye verb receives a primary accent on the first syllable of the verb root. Thus /pelekopuyamma/ receives a primary accent on /ko/. If the root is monosyllabic, the number suffix does not receive stress, If the root is polysyllabic, the number suffix does receive stress. From the number suffix onward, secondary accents occur every other syllable, with the caveat that only the first syllable of a suffix can receive an accent.
Isoglosses
The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of SIye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.
Diachrony: From Tiye to Siye
Tiye, the immediate ancestor of Siye, did not differ greatly from Siye. Tiye possessed two extra phonemes: /d/, which only appeared in initial position in native words) and /b/, which only appeared before /a/ in native words. /b/ and /d/ in other positions, and any instances of /r/, are indications of the extensive borrowing that the language endured before its current dominance. The Tiye female derogatives /yeda/, /deda/, and /tera/ are all borrowings, the sisters of the Tiye word /daye/, when the dying planet Kiba had more languages. The name of the language, Tiye, shows that /t/ was allowed before /i/. The following changes occurred in the transition from Tiye to Siye:
/d/ [d] > /l/ [l]
/t/ [t] > /s/ [s]/_i
/b/ [b] /w/ [w] > /w/ [ʋ]
/r/ [r] > /l/ [l]
Thus the Tiye words /daye/ and /date/ and the loanwords /yeda/, /deda/, and /tera/ became the native Siye terms /laye/, /late/, /yela/, /lela/, and /tela/. Although Tiye was (relatively briefly) a written language, the Guild of Scholars was founded centuries later, when Siye had penetrated to the Central Province; by that time the Tiye loanwords had become native Siye words.
Verb and Participle Structure
Verb Structure
The maximal Siye verb consists of two prefixes, a verb root, and seven suffixes. The prefixes, root, and suffixes interact extensively with each other to form verb phrases that would require several words in English.
Prefixes
The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.
There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.
1. Object Prefix
The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.
le-, la-: 1st person (1)
pe-, sa-: 2nd person (2)
i-, y-, ya-: 3rd person animate (3)
/i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before either a consonants or a vowel.
e-, a-: 3rd person inanimate (4)
mu-: 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
/mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below). Many Siye-speakers, however, intensely dislike the neologism, and prefer to rely on pronouns and nouns to avoid ambiguities.
tum-: 3rd person indefinite (INDEF.ACC)
In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
um-: reflexive (REFL)
Although the reflexive prefix is listed as an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is actually intransitive.
2. Subject Prefix
The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.
-le-, -l-: 1st person (1)
/-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
-pe-: 2nd person (2)
/-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
-i-, -y-, -hi-, -0-: 3rd person animate (3)
/-y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance and the weak position of /i/ within the hierarchy often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs, which vowel dominance does not effect, maintains the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
-e-, -eh-: 3rd person inanimate (4)
/-eh-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance and the weak position of /e/ within the hierarchy often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs, which vowel dominance does not effect, maintains the subject prefix /e-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
-mu-, -m-: 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
/-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
Root
Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. The roots are often less defined than equivalent English verbs, because both causative suffix and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary accent of the verb is on the first syllable of the verb root. Polysyllabic verb roots may end in any syllable except those homophonous with the grammatical number suffixes (ku, pu, so, ke, lo, ka).
Consonant-Initial Root
Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.
Vowel-Initial Roots
Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots, since the verb root is the more important component.
Suppletive Roots
Although there are a limited number of suppletive roots in Siye, the suppletive roots encompass most of the most common verbs. Since some of these verbs are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffix, and the directional suffixes, it can appear to the SSL learner that the Siye verb consistents of nothing but suppletive verbs.
If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects.
Suffixes
Grammatical Number
4. Grammatical Number
The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye works on a nominative-accusative basis if the verb is imperfective and therefore agrees with the subject of a transitive clause (there is only one noun in an intransitive clause and therefore no choice). If the verb is perfective, however, the grammatical number suffix works on an ergative-absolutive basis and agrees with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. When the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular. The grammatical number suffix is obligatory in a Siye verb.
-ku-: null number (NUL)
-pu-: singular number (also indefinite) (SG)
-so-, -s-: dual number (DU)
/-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
-ke-: paucal number (PAUC)
-lo-, -l-: plural number (PL)
/-l-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
-ka-: pantic number (i.e., all); sometimes ethnic (PAN)
-pi-: exclusive marker (replaces dual, paucal, plural) (EXCL)
The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number.
/-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye.
Causative
5. Causative
-sum-: causative
Derivatives
6. Derivatives
This is a semiproductive category and Terrestrial researchers are discovering new ones. If a particular derivative suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one derivative suffix per verb.
-hi-, -nam-: 'begin to X' (INCEPTIVE). -hi- occurs after -sum-; -nam- occurs everywhere else.
-hi-/-nam- triggers the imperfective aspect.
-(h)u-, -tam-: 'continue to X' (CONTINUATIVE). -u occurs after -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after -sum-; -tam occurs everywhere else.
-(h)u-/-tam- triggers the imperfective aspect.
-ka-: 'have resolved to X' (INTENTIVE)
-ka- always triggers the perfective aspect. -ka- and -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
-neme-: 'stop X-ing' (TERMINAL)
-neme- normally triggers the perfective aspect.
-te-: 'want to X' (DESIDERATIVE)
-te- always triggers the imperfective aspect. -ka- and -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
-teka- 'should/must X' (+me, +meku)(MANDATORY)
-teka- triggers the subjunctive or contrafactual moods.
-to-: negative imperative 'do not X'. (IMV.NEG)
-to- triggers a negative aspect/polarity/tense suffix.
-ulu-: tense marker. (TENSE) -ulu- plus perfective aspect suffix -n- creates a definite past tense; -ulu- plus imperfective aspect suffix -m- creates strong future tense.
-wi-: positive imperative 'do X'
-wi- triggers a positive aspect/polarity/tense suffix.
-yam-: 'able to X'
-yam- usually triggers the imperfective aspect, but the association is not as strong as it is with some of the other derivatives.
-yem-: iterative 'again'
Directionals
7. Directionals
Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.
-ki-: 'in place' (DIR.STAT)
-na-: 'up' (DIR.SUPER)
-nu-: 'down' (DIR.SUB)
-su-: 'away from' (DIR.ABL)
-tu-: 'towards' (DIR.ALL)
The other suffixes are fairly self-explanatory, but -ki- probably requires some clarification. The suffix -ki- places emphasis on the stationary nature of the verb. Examples:
eletomputuna I bought it
eletompusuna I sold it
eletompukina I kept it in stock
ikimpukima She is
ikimpunama She has grown up
sakipo ekimpunuma The lake has shrunk
lesupunama I will go up
lesupunuma I will go down
lesupusuma I will go
lesuputuma I will come
lesupukima I will wander
Aspect and Polarity
8 & 9. Aspect (8) & Polarity (9)
Several concepts are conflated in these suffixes. The first is aspect. Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective. SIye aspect, at least in the realis, is totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.
Siye realis divides into two polarities: positive and negative.
-ma-: imperfective positive realis
-na-: perfective positive realis
-me-: imperfective positive subjunctive
-meku-: imperfective negative subjunctive
-ne-: perfective positive contrafactual
-neku-: perfective negative contrafactual
-mu-, -mew-: imperfective negative realis. -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am.
-nu-, -new-: imperfective negative realis. -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am.
Relational
10. Relational
-(a)me: Relative 'who/what/which/that'
-(e)ki: Purpose, 'so that', Result, 'with the result that'
-(e)kem: Temporal, 'when'
-(e)su: Apodotic, 'then'
-(e)sum/-(e)sunam: Conditional, 'if
-(e)ya: Explanatory, 'because'
-umo: positive interrogative (dial. -(a)mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake)
-ukumo: negative interrogative (dial. -(a)mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake)
These suffixes and the coordinative suffix are clause final, rather than verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order, i.e., one in which the subject is the final word, will take these suffixes even though the nouns retains its original case.
Coordinative
11. Coordinative
-(h)(a)m: 'and'. The coordinative suffix is -ham after a syllable containing a nasal consonant; -am after a syllable ending in the vowels -i or -e; -m after a syllable containing ending in vowel -u. The expected form -sum 'then and' is homophonous with -sum 'if', so the Standard Siye form of 'then and' is -sunam (< -su-ni-am). A pronominal root combined with a coordinative suffix is considered in Siye grammar to be a special form of pronoun.
Negative
12. Negative (floater)
-ku: negative
Miscellaneous Information
Positions 1 and 2 often combine due to Vowel Dominance. There are two conjugations, yi-conjugation and ya-conjugation. The ya-conjugation is object-prominent. Position 3 is often suppletive depending on aspect (Position 8). Position 4 reflects the subject if the verb is imperfective, the object if the verb is perfective. It is mandatory even in the singular number. Position 5 is often derivational and triggers the Causative (Syntactical) Construction in originally transitive verbs. Position 6 is derivational; each suffix may be associated with a particularly aspect. Position 6 triggers the Causative Construction in specific cases. Position 7 is sometimes derivational, sometimes not, usually mandatory. Position 8 and 9, usually combine into one syllable. Position 10 usually indicates a subordinate clause or a matrix clause in a conditional statement. Position 11 indicates parallel clauses and may combine with Position 8/9 or Position 10. Position 12 is a mobile suffix used to disambiguate certain negative statements or strengthen an already negative statement.
Participle Structure
1. Root
2. Causative
3. Derivatives
4. Directionals
5. Aspect
6. Mode
7. Nominalizer
-ki: passive, instrumental
-kim: locative
-yam: active, ergative
8. Grammatical Number
9. Case
Positions 2, 3, and 4 are only present if necessary. Position 7 has three variants, active, passive, and locative. A participle lacks the Object and Subject Prefixes of a verb in a relative clause.
Syntax
Syntax
The dominant and neutral intranstive word order in Siye is SV, in which the verb is a yi-conjugation verb. The subject prefix and number suffix agree with the subject of the clause. Note that /3/ indicates the third animate pronoun, while /4/ indicates the inanimate pronoun.
Layelo itulosuna.
laye-lo-0 i-tu-lo-su-na.
woman-PL-ABS 3-move.PFV-PL-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
The women left.
If the subject is a pronoun, it may be dropped, since the relevant information is already encoded on the transitive verb.
Ilo itulosuna.
i-lo-0 i-tu-lo-su-na.
3-PL-NOM 3-move.PFV-PL-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
They left.
Itulosuna.
i-tu-lo-su-na.
3-PL-NOM 3-move.PFV-PL-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
They left.
A basic clause with a transitive verb is SOV and uses a yi-conjugation verb. Although the agreement of the subject and object pronoun prefixes is nominative, the alignment of the number suffix is dependent on the aspect of the verb. If the verb is imperfective, the number suffix agrees with the Subject. If the verb is perfective, the number suffix agrees with the Object.
Layekesoya yetelo eyuluwesoma.
layeke-so-ya yete-lo-0 e-i-uluwe-so-ma.
Girl-DU-ERG seed-PL-ABS 4-3-find-DU-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
The two girls will find the seeds.
Layekesoya yetelo eyuluwelona.
layeke-so-ya yete-lo-0 e-i-uluwe-lo-na.
Girl-DU-ERG seed-PL-ABS 4-3-find-PL-PFV.POS.REALIS
The two girls found the seeds.
If there is a pronoun as Subject or Object, and that pronoun is the one indexed by the number suffix, that pronoun may be omitted from the clause.
(Iso) yetelo eyuluwesoma.
(i-so-0) yete-lo-0 e-i-uluwe-so-ma.
(3-DU-NOM) seed-PL-ABS 4-3-find-DU-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
Both of them will find the seeds.
Layekesoya (elo) eyuluwelona.
layeke-so-ya (e-lo-a) e-i-uluwe-lo-na.
Girl-DU-ERG (4-PL-ACC) 4-3-find-PL-PFV.POS.REALIS
The two girls found them (inanimate plural).
The construction with the indefinite pronoun (which can be animate or inanimate but is always Nominative rather than Ergative) as Subject or Object is also transitive. It is forbidden for both Subject and Object to be indefinite. Indefinite Subjects or Objects are singular by default, but may take non-singular number suffixes when appropriate. The pronoun indexed by the number suffix on the verb may be dropped.
Mukasapunamma.
mu-kasa-nam-ma
INDEF-be.cold/polar-CONT-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
It is cold.
Pelo (mu) mupeyopunanumo?
pe-lo-0 (mu-a) mu-pe-yo-pu-na-na-umo?
2-PL-NOM INDEF-ACC INDEF-2-eat.PFV-SG-DIR.SUPER-IMPFV.POS.REALIS-Q.POS
Have you eaten something?
(Muke) susumsuyamso imulikesumhulunuma.
(mu-ke-0) susumsuyam-so-0 i-mu-li-ke-sum-ulu-nu-ma.
INDEF-PAUC-NOM missionary-DU-ABS 3-INDEF-die.IMPFV-PAUC-CAUS-TNS-DIR.SUB-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
Somebody (a band of thugs, perhaps) will kill the two missionaries.
Susumsuyamso imulipusumnuluma.
susumsuyam-so-0 i-mu-li-pu-sum-nu-ulu-ma.
missionary-DU-ABS 3-INDEF-die.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-DIR.SUB-TNS-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
The missionaries will be killed.
Peso pemulipusumhulunma. (*Pemulipusumnuluma.)
pe-so-0 i-mu-li-pu-sum-ulu-nu-ulu-ma.
2-DU-ABS 3-INDEF-die.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-TNS-DIR.SUB-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
They will be killed.
The pronoun prefix /me/ (also both animate and inanimate) is definite rather than indefinite. Unlike /mu/, the prefix is related to an demonstrative adjective rather than a noun. This prefix may not be used in the initial clause of a discourse. The prefix /me/ must refer to a definite entity previously referred to in the discourse and the number suffix must agree with the previous entity. Furthermore, this entity must not only be either the Subject or Object of the current clause, but also the Subject or Object of the preceding clause. Since a sentence which contains the noun phrase in which the definite adjective /me/ modifies the noun would use the third and fourth person pronoun prefixes on the verb, a transitive statement which contains the pronoun prefix /me/ must be SV in the imperfective and OV in the perfective.
Mekasaputamma.
me-kasa-pu-tam-ma
DEF-be.cold-SG-CONT-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
This one was cold.
Le meleyemlona. (*Le melekopuma)
le-0 me-le-yem-lo-na.
1-NOM DEF-1-see.PFV-PL-PFV.POS.REALIS
I saw these things.
Susumsuyamlo imelikesumnuma.
susumsuyam-lo-0 i-me-li-ke-sum-nu-ma
missionary-PL-ABS 3-DEF-die.IMPFV-CAUS-DIR.SUB-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
These few men will kill the missionaries.
Reflexive verbs are functionally intransitive (since reflexivity is a valence-decreasing operation) but morphologically transitive (since the reflexive pronoun prefix fill the object pronoun slot). The pronoun , therefore, may be dropped, and the subject prefix is the only slot that can change person.
Umhimupuna.
Um-i-mu-pu-na
REFL-3-know.PFV-SG-PFV.POS.REALIS
He knew himself.
Ummepipumesum …
um-me-pi-pu-me-sum
REFL-DEF-know.PFV-SG-COND-IF
If this person (previously mentioned) knows himself …
Constructions with the Dative-Benefactive and Dative-Allative
A basic ditransitive sentence has the structure Subject + Indirect Object + Direct Object + Verb. The subject may be in the ergative or nominative case, the direct object may be in the absolutive or accusative case, and the indirect object may be in the dative-benefactive or dative-allative case.
Layekeya nusu inetu nesakam emupusuna.
layeke-0-ya nusu i-ne-tu nesakam-0 e-i-mu-pu-su-na.
girl-SG-ERG brother 3-GEN-DAT letter-ABS 4-3-give/take-SG-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
The girl gave the letter to her brother.
Reciprocal sentences use the reflexive verb with a dative pronoun in the same person and number as the subject of the reflexive.
Isotu umhikosoma. i-so-tu um-i-ko-so-ma.
3-DU-DAT REFL-3-see.IMPFV-DU-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
They (two) see each other.
Possession is indicated in Siye by the intransitive verb /kim-ki/. The possessed item or quality is placed in the absolutive case, the possessor in the dative case.
Letu layekeso ikimsokima.
Le-tu layeke-so i-kim-so-ki-ma
1-DAT daughter-DU 3-be-DU-DIR.STAT-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
I have two daughters.
Constructions with the Locative Cases
Locative sentences use the Locative Case, one of the locative cases, or a locative postposition.
Lupatekem umlo ikimlokima.
Lupate-kem um-lo-0 i-kim-lo-ki-ma
mountain-LOC person-PL-ABS 3-be-PL-DIR.STAT-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
The people were on the mountain.
Silinemtu laye siline ikimpukima. (pre-2192 'siline emtu')
sili-nemtu laye_sili-ne-0 i-kim-pu-ki-ma
house-INE maid-GEN-ABS 3-be-SG-DIR.STAT-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
The maid was inside the house.
Sakipone tekim tupi tumke ekimpukima.
Sakipo-ne tekim tupi tum-ke-0 e-kim-pu-ki-ma
lake-GEN above bird INDEF-PAUC-ABS 3-be-SG-DIR.STAT-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
The few birds were above the lake.
Constructions with the Equative Case
Predicative phrases in Siye place the predicate in the Equative Case.
Laye me kumayampu ikimpukima.
laye me-0 kumayampu i-kim-pu-ki-ma.
Man DEM-ABS chief-EQ 3-be-SG-DIR.STAT-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
This man is a chief.
Object-Fronting
If the object of the clause is fronted, the verb changes from yi-conjugation to ya-conjugation. The examples are drawn from above.
Layekesoya yetelo eyuluwesoma. > Yetelo layekesoya ayuluwesoma.
Layekesoya yetelo eyuluwelona. > Yetelo layekesoya ayuluwelona.
The same pro-drop rules that apply to the yi-conjugation also apply the ya-conjugation.
Yetelo layekesoya ayuluwesoma. >Yetelo (isoya) ayuluwesoma.
Yetelo layekesoya ayuluwelona. > (Ilo) layekesoya ayuluwelona.
Yetelo (isoya) ayuluwesoma. > Elo (isoya) ayuluwesoma.
(Ilo) layekesoya ayuluwelona. > (Ilo) isoya ayuluwelona.
Impersonal verbs with /mu/ and have already reduced the strength of one of the verbal arguments, and therefore do not participate in object-fronting. Verbs with the definite prefix /me/ can participate in object-fronting, although the distinction is not as strong; in this case, /me/ becomes /ma/.
Le maleyemlona.
le-0 ma-le-yem-lo-na.
1-NOM DEF-1-see.PFV-PL-PFV.POS.REALIS
These things are what I saw.
Susumsuyamlo yamelikesumnuma.
These few men will kill the missionaries.
Object-fronting may occur with ditransitive verbs:
Tupiso le layeketu yaletomsosuna.
tupi-so-0 le-0 layeke-tu ya-le-tom-so-su-na.
Bird-DU-ABS 1-NOM 3-1-commerce-DU-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
The two birds are what I sold to the girl.
Fronting the Indirect Object
If the Indirect Object is fronted, the verb remains yi-conjugation and the word order changes to IOSV..
layeke metu yetelo le iletomlosuna.
layeke me-tu yete-lo-0 le-0 i-le-tom-lo-su-na
girl DEM-DAT fruit-PL-ABS 1-NOM 3-1-commerce-PL-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
That girl, she's the one to whom I sold the fruit.
Causative Construction
If the Subject requires more prominence, the verb remains yi-conjugation, but the subject follows the verb, creating an OVS word order. Originally, the postponed subject had to be the subject or object of the following clause, but this restriction no longer applies.
lesupuwisuma lam petampuwisuma.
le-su-pu-wi-su-ma le-am pe-tam-pu-wi-su-ma
1-move.IMPFV-SG-OBL-DIR.ABL-IMPFV.POS.REALIS 1-COORD 2-remain-SG-OBL-DIR.ABL-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
'Tis I must go, and you must bide.
yete iluluwepuma le.
Causative Construction
If the Subject requires more prominence, the verb remains yi-conjugation, but the subject follows the verb, creating an OVS word order. Originally, the postponed subject had to be the subject or object of the following clause, but this restriction no longer applies.
lesupuwisuma lam petampuwisuma.
le-su-pu-wi-su-ma le-am pe-tam-pu-wi-su-ma
1-move.IMPFV-SG-OBL-DIR.ABL-IMPFV.POS.REALIS 1-COORD 2-remain-SG-OBL-DIR.ABL-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
'Tis I must go, and you must bide.
yete iluluwepuma le.
yete-0 i-le-uluwe-pu-ma le-0
fruit-ABS 3-1-find-SG-IMPFV.POS.REALIS 1-NOM
'Tis I who will find the fruit.
layeketu tupiso iletomsosuna le.
layeke-0-tu tupi-so-0 i-le-tom-so-su-na le-0.
Girl-SG-DAT bird-DU-ABS 3-1-commerce.PFV-DU-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS 1-NOM
'Twas I who sold the two birds to the girl.
neneka yiyokanana tupisoyam ...
nene-ka-0 i-i-yo-ka-na-na tupi-so-ya-am
bug-PAN-ABS 3-3-eat.PFV-PAN-DIR.SUPER-PFV.POS.REALIS bird-DU-ERG-COORD
'Twas the birds that ate all the bugs.
As the forms /lam/ and /tupisoyam/ illustrate, the postponing of the subject results in clause-final suffixes affixing to the subject rather than the verb. The explanatory suffix -ya is the most misleading of these.
nusu laye imelo yikoputemu i.
nusu laye i-me-lo-0 i-i-ko-pu-te-mu i
sibling female 3-POSS-PL-ABS 3-3-see.IMPFV-SG-VOL-IMPFV.NEG.REALIS 3-NOM
He does not want to see his sisters.
nusu laye imelo yikoputemu iya ...
nusu laye i-me-lo-0 i-i-ko-pu-te-mu i-0-ya
sibling female 3-POSS-PL-ABS 3-3-see.IMPFV-SG-VOL-IMPFV.NEG.REALIS 3-NOM-EXPL
… because he does not want to see his sisters.
Basic Word Order and the Coordinative Suffix
Spoken Siye usually strings together clauses using the relational suffixes or the coordinative suffix.
Transcript from a tale from the marketplace.
“(Le) amakimsu letuputunam (la) um lumsa tumna layempumam letu i eyekena ... “
“So, I went to the market, and a foreigner spotted me, and he said ...”
Line from a folktale (adapted):
Ya ilekepununa le i laye lemepu ekimputekakimekuya.
I have murdered her because she would not be my bride.
Relative Clauses
The core vocabulary of Siye is extremely small. Relative clauses, formed with the relative suffix -(a)me, are a method of expanding a noun phrase. The nominalized noun phrase derives from a composite structure of Verb + Relative Suffix + Resumptive Pronoun. The nominalized noun phrase is always singular, but takes its animacy from the head noun of the relative clause.
Laye (ya) le yalekemputuname ilekepununa le.
I have murdered the woman I loved.
/yalekemputuname/ has no overt case marking because the noun phrase is in the absolutive case.
Laye ya (le) yaliputumameya leya umsatu tumhitumpusumtuna.
The woman I love has married another man.
The verb /yaliputumameya/ ends in /ya/, not /na/, because it derives from /yaliputuma-ame-iya/. The resumptive pronoun /iya/ has no nasal component, and therefore takes as the ergative suffix /-ya/ rather than /-na/. /yaliputumaya/, without the relative clause suffix /-(a)me/, derives from /yaliputuma-(e)ya/, the explanatory suffix.
Laye yaliputumaya leya umsatu ya iletumpusumkatuna (yaletumpusumkatuna)
Because I love the woman, I have resolved that she not marry another manl
Causative Construction
The causative construction in Siye is a valence-increasing operation. The majority of Position 6 suffixes can trigger a causative construction. Thus intransitives become transitive, and transitives become ditransitive. The transformation from intransitive to transitive is fairly simple, and the normal rules for person and number marking on a transitive verb apply.
Ikelonuna.
They died.
Peso ipekelosumnuna.
You two killed them.
If the causatve suffix -sum- is added to a transitive verb, the cases of the core arguments from the original clause depend on the aspect of the verb. The causative suffix is -sum-.
If -sum- is added to a transitive verb, the cases of the core arguments from the original clause depend on the aspect of the verb.
If the verb is imperfective, the originally nominative or ergative subject of the original clause becomes instrumental, while the originally accusative or absolutive object of the original clause remains accusative or absolutive. Prior to 2192, if the subject of the original clause was animate, it becomes expressed by postposition preceded by a genitive or possessive.
If the verb is perfective, the original nominative or ergative subject of the original clause becomes accusative or absolutive, while the original accusative or absolutive object becomes dative or allative. Position 6 suffixes do not take the Causative Construction when the subject and the semantic object of the Causative Construction are the same.
Leyakeya yetelo elipulunama.
leyake-0-ya yete-lo-0 e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
boy-SG-ERG seed-PL-ABS 4-3-eat.IMPFV-SG-TNS-DIR.SUPER-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
The boy will eat the seeds.
(pre-2192)
Pe leyakene eki yetelo epelipusumhulunama.
pe-0 leyake-0-ne eki yete-lo-0 e-pe-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
2-NOM boy-SG-GEN INS seed-PL-ABS 4-2-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-TNS-DIR.SUPER-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
You will feed the boy the seeds.
(2192 onward)
Pe leyakeneki yetelo epelipusumhulunama.
pe-0 leyake-0-neki yete-lo-0 e-pe-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
2-NOM boy-SG-ANS seed-PL-ABS 4-2-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-TNS-DIR.SUPER-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
You will feed the boy the seeds.
Leyakeya yetelo eyolulunana.
leyake-0-ya yete-lo-0 e-i-yo-lo-ulu-na-ma
boy-SG-ERG seed-PL-ABS 4-3-eat.PFV-PL-TNS-DIR.SUPER-PFV.POS.REALIS
The boy has eaten the seeds.
Pe yetelosu leyake ipekepusumhulunana.
pe-0 yete-lo-su leyake-0 i-pe-yo-pu-sum-ulu-na-na
2-NOM seed-PL-ALL girl-ABS 3-2-eat.PFV-SG-CAUS-TNS-DIR.SUPER-PFV.POS.REALIS
The causative form of a verb often translates into a different English verb than the basic form. Some Siye causative forms are lexicalized and treated as separate from the basic form; others are not, where the meaning of the Siye basic form is simply broader than that of English. The above comments apply to either type.
You fed the boy the seeds.
The causative form of a verb often translates into a different English verb than the basic form. Some Siye causative forms are lexicalized and treated as separate from the basic form; others are not, where the meaning of the Siye basic form is simply broader than that of English. The above comments apply to either type.
Le lusilisu (sa) pelekopusumna. I showed you the city.
Examples with -sum-
(Le) lusili elekopuma.
le-0-0 lusili-0-0 e-le-ko-pu-ma
1-SG-NOM city-SG-ABS 4-1-see.IMPFV-SG-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
I see the city.
Le lusili eleyempuna.
le-0-0 lusili-0-0 e-le-yem-pu-na
1-SG-NOM city-SG-ABS 4-1-see.PFV-SG-PFV.POS.REALIS
I saw the city.
(Le) peneki lusili elekopusumma.
(le-0-0) pe-0-neki lusili-0-0 e-le-ko-pu-sum-ma
(1-SG-NOM) 2-SG-ANS city-SG-ABS 4-1-see.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
I show you the city.
Le lusilisu (sa) peleyempusumna.
le-0-0 lusili-0-su (sa-0) pe-le-yem-pu-sum-na
1-SG-NOM city-SG-ALL 2.ACC-SG 2-1-see.PFV-SG-CAUS-PFV.POS.REALIS
I showed you the city.
Examples with -te- and -ka-
(Le) keno elekoputema.
le-0-0 keno-0-0 e-le-ko-pu-te-ma
1-SG-NOM book-SG-ABS 4-1-see.IMPFV-SG-DES-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
I want to see the book.
Le keno eleyempukana.
le-0-0 keno-0-0 e-le-yem-pu-ka-na
1-SG-NOM book-SG-ABS 4-1-see.PFV-SG-INTNT-PFV.POS.REALIS
I have resolved to see the book.
(Le) peneki keno elekoputema.
(le-0-0) pe-neki keno-0-0 e-le-ko-pu-te-ma
(1-SG-NOM) 2-ANS book-SG-ABS 4-1-see.IMPFV-SG-DES-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
I want you to see the book.
Le kenosu (sa) peleyempukana.
le-0-0 keno-0-0 sa-0 pe-le-yem-pu-ka-na
1-SG-NOM book-SG-ABS 2.ACC-SG 2-1-see.IMPFV-SG-INTNT-PFV.POS.REALIS
I have resolved that you see the book.
Examples with -yam-
(Le) sa peleyopuyammu. I cannot hear you.
Le like layeke peme (sa) peleyopusumyamna. I can tell you about the death of your sister.
Kumayam ya isupusumtuyamme. The chief may be able to summon him.
Examples with -numu- and -mmu-/-num-
le a elekopunumuma
le-0 a e-le-ko-pu-numu-ma
1-NOM 4.ACC 4-1-see.IMPFV-SG-PERM-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
I am permitted to see it.
Le peneki a elekopnumumu.
le-0 pe-neki a e-le-ko-pu-numu-mu
1-NOM 2-ANS 4.ACC 4-1-see.IMPFV-SG-PERM-IMPFV.NEG.REALIS
I forbid you from seeing it.
Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
layeke me-na tupi-lo-tu um lumsa-0 i-i-numu-pu-mmu-su-na
girl DEM-ERG bird-PL-DAT person foreign-ABS 3-3-give-SG-PERM-DIR.ALL-PFV.POS.REALIS
This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
Examples with -neme--
Ilo lusili ekelonemena.
I-lo-0 lusili-0 e-i-ke-lo-neme-na
3-PL-NOM city-ABS 4-3-make.PFV-PL-TERM-PFV.POS.REALIS
They stopped building the city.
Kumayam lusilisu yalo yikelosumnemena.
Kumayam-0 lusili-su ya-lo i-i-ke-lo-sum-neme-na
Lord-NOM city-ALL 3.ACC-PL 3-3-make.PFV-PL-CAUS-TERM-PFV.POS.REALIS
The Lord stopped them from building the city.
Examples with -kom-
I nesakam tum enesakampuluma.
i-0 nesakam tum-0 e-i-nesakam-pu-ulu-ma
3-NOM letter INDEF-ABS 4-3-write-SG-TNS-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
He will write a letter.
Le ineki (ine eki) nesakam tum elenesakampusumhuluma.
le-0 i-neki (i-ne eki) nesakam tum-0 e-le-nesakam-pu-sum-ulu-ma
1-NOM 3-ANS (3-GEN INS) letter INDEF-ABS 4-3-write-SG-TNS-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
I promise that he will write a letter.
Periphrastic Verbs
Periphrastic verbs occur in Siye when there is a need to use two Position 6 suffixes in the same verb complex or when the aspect required or associated with the Position 6 suffix does not match the aspect associated with the verb.
Ex. I want to begin selling seeds. Anamsuke elenuputema
Basic Word Order and the Coordinative Suffix
Spoken Siye usually strings together clauses using the relational suffixes or the coordinative suffix.
Transcript from a tale from the marketplace.
“(Le) amakimsu letuputunam (la) um lumsa tumna layempumam letu i eyekena ... “
“So, I went to the market, and a foreigner spotted me, and he said ...”
Line from a folktale (adapted):
Ya ilekepununa le i laye lemepu ekimputekakimekuya.
I have murdered her because she would not be my bride.
Relative Clauses
The core vocabulary of Siye is extremely small. Relative clauses, formed with the relative suffix -(a)me, are a method of expanding a noun phrase. The nominalized noun phrase derives from a composite structure of Verb + Relative Suffix + Resumptive Pronoun. The nominalized noun phrase is always singular, but takes its animacy from the head noun of the relative clause.
Laye (ya) le yalekemputuname ilekepununa le.
I have murdered the woman I loved.
/yalekemputuname/ has no overt case marking because the noun phrase is in the absolutive case.
Laye ya (le) yaliputumameya leya umsatu tumhitumpusumtuna.
The woman I love has married another man.
The verb /yaliputumameya/ ends in /ya/, not /na/, because it derives from /yaliputuma-ame-iya/. The resumptive pronoun /iya/ has no nasal component, and therefore takes as the ergative suffix /-ya/ rather than /-na/. /yaliputumaya/, without the relative clause suffix /-(a)me/, derives from /yaliputuma-(e)ya/, the explanatory suffix.
Laye yaliputumaya leya umsatu ya iletumpusumkatuna (yaletumpusumkatuna)
Because I love the woman, I have resolved that she not marry another man.
Complex Clause Order
Postpositions
When cases are insufficient, Siye uses postpositions. Postpositions are nouns that have been grammaticalized and therefore have a limited assortment of case suffixes. The noun is in the Genitive Case, less commonly, the Possessive Case, depending on factors such as alienability and saliency. Locative postpositions are the most common. Although the postpositions refine the ablative-locative-allative trinity of the case system, the endings on the postpositions are -tu/-kim/-sum.
Postpositions: -tu/-kim/-sum
Cases: -su/-kem/-sum
Directional Suffixes: -tu/-ki/-su
Ekiwa pewakine emkimpu ekimpukima. The heart is inside the body.
Le silisu letuputuna. I went to the house.
Le siline emtu letuputuna. I went inside the house.
Le silisum letupusuna. I came from the house.
Le siline emsum letupusuna. I came out of the house.
Tupiloya siline tekim itupilonama. The birds are flying above the house.
Tupiloya kemhusakine tetu i ukulo yililonameki itupilonama. The birds are flying down to the river that they might eat the fish.
Tupiloya kemhusakine tesum ukuloni itupulonama. The birds are flying up away from the river with the fish (in their mouths).
Purpose and Result Clauses
Both purpose and result clauses use verbs ending in -(e)ki. Purpose clauses, however, are embedded within the matrix clause, while result clauses follow the matrix clause.
Susumsuyam lusilisu itupusuna.
The messenger went to the city.
Susumsuyam lusilisu i kumayam yikopumeki itupusuna.
The messenger went to the city to see the chief.
(The purpose of the trip was to see the chief)
Susumsuyam lusilisu itupusuna i kumayam yikopumeki.
The messenger went to the city and saw the chief.
(The purpose of the trip was not to see the chief, but it was a result of the messenger going to the city).
The result clause is similar in meaning to the following Siye sentence.
Susumsuyam lusilisu itupusunam i kumayam yiyempuna.
The messenger went to the city and saw the the chief.
Of these three compound statements, the first indicates intention, but not necessarily result; the second indicates result, but not intention; the third indication a connection between the two clauses but leaves the nature of that connection vague.
Temporal Clauses
A clause with a verb ending in -(e)kem usually precedes the matrix clause.
Le layeke ekimpukimakem, le laye lu lemetu eleyepusumkina: pala lekimpumumo?
When I was a little girl, I asked my mother: what will I become?
Explanatory Clauses
A clause with a verb ending in -(e)ya may precede or follow the matrix clause.
I la nimuku leyepusumkinaya, le itu a elemupusuna.
Because he asked nicely, I gave it to him.
Itu a le elemupusuna, la nimuku leyepusumkinaya i.
I gave to him (not you) because he asked nicely.
Conditional Clauses
In a conditional statement, the protasis clause with a verb ending in -(e)sum precedes the apodosis clause with a verb ending in -(e)su or -(e)sunam.
Peso yete upepome ipelisonamesum, pelisosumnumasu.
If you two eat the fruit of the tree, you will die.
Conditional clauses can use both aspects and both polarities of Position 8 & 9
Ya pe yapeyempunesum, pe ya ipekemputunesu.
If you had seen her, you would have loved her.
I me enupumusum, ya le yalelipusumnumasu.
If he does not do this, I will kill him.
Pe kumayamlo epesipunumesum, sa ilo sasisumtumesu.
If you insult bosses, they will take you to court.
Multiple clauses ending in -sum and -su may be strung together using the coordinating suffix -(h)(a)m.
Le lusilike mesum lesupusumasumham lusilisu lesuputumasum, le tunamaki eluluwepumesu.
If I leave this village and go to the big city, I might find success.
Interrogative Clauses
Interrogative clauses end in -umo if positive or neutral and in -ukumo if negative. There is a dialectal form -(a)mo which the astute reader may notice in older texts. The interrogative clause is usually the matrix clause. It is found in the company of result clauses, purpose clauses (in conjunction with an interrogative clause, result clauses and purpose clauses are indistinguishable), temporal clauses, explanatory clauses, and conditional clauses.
Ilo ililonumeki, pe ilotu liyo epemupumukumo?
Will you not give them food, so that they will die?
Leso mu mulelipisonameki, liyo le aluluwetekamumo?
Should I find food, that we two might eat?
Le yemku lesupulutumakem,pe la lapetumpusumhulutumumo?
When I surely return, will you marry me?
Letu laye umsa ikimpukimaya, la pe lapetumpusumtekutumukumo?
Do you not want to marry me because you have another wife?
Sa le koki salesupusumnamesum, la pe koki lapesupusumnamumo?
If I help you, will you help me?
Reported Speech
Siye shows reported speech as it was said (with grammar corrected, of course) preceded by a sentence containing a verb of speaking or asking. The quoted speech is the inanimate direct object of the main clause and is considered to be in the paucal number.
laye lu peme letu eyekena: itu peya pomi keke ekimpukekima.
Your mother said to me: she is (too) young.
le laye lu pemetu elemuketena: layeke peme iletumpusumtekatume.
I asked your mother: I would like to marry your daughter.
pe letu epesime: petu le lekimpulukima.
You should say this to me: I will surely be yours.
There are numerous examples of reported speech in the text section.
Officialese
The language of official contracts is extremely important to the Simayamka. Although one could write a book on the subject, and indeed many have, two exaples will suffice for now:
Layekeya kutumsum kokem tupiso yitomsosunam, i omnuyamtu kosokem (yaso) yitomsotuna.
The girl bought the two birds from the priest for five, but she sold them to the painted lady for ten.
The girl (layeke-ya) is in the ergative case, as the subject of a transitive sentence. The two birds (tupiso-0) is in the absolutive case, as the object of a transitive sentence. The verb is 'to buy', so the seller, the priest (kutum-sum) is in the ablative case. The amount of the transaction (ko-kem) is in the locative case. In the second clause, a similar situation prevails, except that the buyer (omnuyam-tu) is in the dative-benefactive case.
A second example involves the verb 'to go/come' with a noun in various cases.
Kilusum Itemsu itupusuna. He has come from Chilu to Iteng.
Sakiki itupusuna. He has come by water (He has sailed)
Kumayampu itupusuna. He has come as an official.
Pusitu itulosuna. They have come for Fushi.
Pusi Nusini itupusuna. Fushi has come with his partner Nushi.
Nusi kokem itupusuna. Nushi has come for the price of five.
