Kalo
Introduction
Phonology
Consonants
| labial | dental | palatal | velar | glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| stops | /t/ t | /k/ k - /kʷ/ kw | |||
| nasals | /m/ m | /n/ n | /ɲ/ ny | ||
| approximants | /w/ w | /j/ y | /h~ɦ/ h |
Stops
The stops /t/ and /k/ can be aspirated and are written as doubled consonants to indicate aspiration. Aspiration is phonemic and distinctive.
- toma - /toma/ - "boil; cook; steam"
- ttoma - /tʰoma/ - "be viscous; dense; thick"
- kaya - /kaja/ - "arrive; come [back]"
- kkaya - /kʰaja/ - "wash up and dress; prepare for the day"
Nasals
Each nasal consonant has a geminate counterpart, and gemination is lexically contrastive.
- hanno - /ɦanːo/ - "opening; orifice; mouth"
- hano /ɦano/ "cane; staff"
- nyoma - /ɲoma/ - "speak; talk; discuss"
- nnyoma /ɲːoma/ "weave; knit"
- meka - /meka/ - "sleep; rest; relax"
- mmeka - /mːeka/ - "perspire; sweat"
Approximants
- h - /ɦ/
- w - /w/
- y - /j/
Vowels
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | e | o |
| Open | a |
There are only three phonemic vowels: /a e o/. They can be long or short and be one of three tones. Length can be lexical, but tone is strictly phonemic.
- aàáeèéoòó
Tones
There are three phonemic tones, traditionally described as mid, high, and low; in transcription the mid tone is unmarked, and the high and low tones are indicated with acute and grave accents respectively.
| high | mid | low | |
|---|---|---|---|
| front | é | e | è |
| central | á | a | à |
| back | ó | o | ò |
Morphosyntax
anyomo is an agglutinative language, where words use suffix complexes for a variety of purposes with several morphemes strung together.
Verbs
STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)
Example:
| Verb Stem | Size/Importance | Mood | Aspect | Tense | Negative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| empa | -hi | -pa | -nko | -ye | -k |
| run | DIM | ABIL | PROG | PST | NEG |
Pronouns
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | o- | wà- |
| 2 | ko- | kwà- |
| 3 | ∅ | yà- |
Aspect
imperfective
- -a
perfective
- -e
- yàkaye - 3pl-arrive-PFV - They have arrived.
- I've bought it.
- We all went.
- This morning I ate breakfast.
durative
- -á
- I'll read, and you listen.
- We will do it, and you all watch.
- Sit for a while. I'll be right back.
- She likes to eat standing up.
- Smiling, he said, "I'm sorry."
progressive
- -ó
- She is reading.
- Mom is making a phone call.
- Who is taking a shower in there?
- The cleaning lady is cleaning our room right now.
- Yesterday at 7pm, we were eating dinner.
- I am working now. It's not convenient for me to leave.
Derivation
Nominalization
Lexicon
affixes
stems
- nyom - speak; talk; converse; chat; discuss
- h - walk; go (away); run; move (of vehicle); visit; leave
