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The Kala conlang...

introduction

Kala is a personal conlang (actually more of an artlang), not attached to any conworld or conculture.

characteristics

Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:

muya ka - do Q - (What are you) doing?
ina - eat - (I am) eating.
tamatse - good-seem - (That looks) good.
ueha ka - want Q - (Do you) want (some)?
nyasak - thank-NEG - No, thank (you).

Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.

parts of speech

Kala has three parts of speech, each with several subgroups. Nouns and verbs are substantive, while particles tend to be only functional. Many of the words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be ina (food; to eat).

na ina - 1sg eat - I eat.
- na ke ina anya - 1sg O food see - I see the food.

borrowing

Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:

See also: etymology

kala – to speak, talk, converse; from Arabic takallama
na – I, me; from Arabic ʾanā
pato – duck (Anatidae); from Spanish pato
tsenka – orange; from Chinese chéng
uasi – to take, get, acquire; from Lakota wasichu
myonta – to allow, permit; from Finnish myöntää
a – to be, exist, yes; from Japanese aru

phonology

consonants

Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

Consonants
	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
	Labial	central	lateral	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m (m)	n (n)		ɲ (ny)
Plosive	p~b (p)	t~d (t)			k~g (k)	ʔ (`)
Affricate		ts (ts)	t͡ɬ~tl (tl)	t͡ʃ (ts)
Continuant		s (s)	l~ɾ (l)	ʃ (s)		h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel				j (y)	w (u)

Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.

vowels

Vowels
	Front	Central	Back
Close	i~ɪ (i)		u~u: (u)
Mid	e~ɛ (e)		o~o: (o)
Open		a~a: (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.

syllable structure

Kala words are typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. They are listed here: syllable chart, or here.

/l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and toponyms).

word order

The basic structure of a Kala sentence is:

AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or SOV)

The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:

mita tlaka anya - dog man see - The dog sees the man.
tlaka mita anya - man dog see - The man sees the dog.

In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.

nouns

plural

Nouns can be marked plural by -m (or -lo if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
- In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the Kala sentence mita ha'o a "dog three exist" keeps the word mita "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
- The collective plural is marked by tli-, derived from tatli, meaning group; collection; gathering. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL).

ata - name > atalo - names
mita – dog > mitam - dogs > tlimita – pack of dogs
yama – mountain > tliyamalo – mountain ranges
tsaka – house > tlitsaka – neighborhood
puku – clothing > tlipuku – wardrobe

gender

Gender is not normally marked but can be by -na (FEM), -ta (MASC), or nouns such as naka, tlaka, nahi, or tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc. A gender neutral suffix, -nta may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.

determiners

Determiners precede the noun they modify in Kala. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between proximal or first person (objects near to the speaker), medial or second person (objects near to the addressee), and distal or third person (objects far from both).

itla (i-) - this (near me)
uatla (ua-) - that (near you)
yetla (ye-) - that (over there)

The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show deixis.

Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.

kua (-kua) - all; every; whole
oli (-li) - each; every
ula (-la) - whatever; any; some
mi (-mi) - few; little
nke (-k) - none
mpa (-mpa) - many; much; a lot
maha - more; plus
ohi - less; fewer

pronouns

Kala agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun na'am which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc.

na - 1st person
ta - 2nd person
ha - 3rd person
tla - 4th person ("it", "one")

Modifiers:

-m - plural
-nku - reciprocal (only attaches to plural pronouns)
e- - patient
-i - reflexive
-yo - possessive

Here is a chart with all regular declensions of Kala pronouns.

Other pronouns include:

tlokua - everyone, everybody
kola - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
tlok - no one, nobody
nokua - everything
nola - something; whatever, anything
nok - nothing

verbs

...

particles

ke

The patient, or object (O) marker.

conjunctions

There are three coordinating conjunctions in Kala and three correlative conjunctions:

coordinating

ma - and; also

mita ina ma moku - dog eat and sleep - The dog eats and sleeps.

ua - or

mita ina ua moku - dog eat or sleep - The dog eats or sleeps.

ehe (me) - but; yet

mita ina ma mokunke - dog eat but sleep-NEG - The dog eats but does not sleep.

correlative

yema - both X and Y

mita ina yema empa - dog eat both.X.and.Y run - The dog eats and runs.

ue - either X or Y

mita ina ue empa - dog eat either.X.or.Y run - The dog is either eating or running.

uenke (uek) - neither X nor Y

mita ina uenke empa - dog eat neither.X.nor.Y run - The dog is neither eating nor running.

prepositions

Kala does not have prepositions as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as prepositions, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”.

na tsakahue

1SG house-LOC

I am at home.

iyoma tahi nayo hakyohue

today son 1SG.POSS school-LOC

My son is in school today.

Almost any locative verb can be used in the preposition role.

mita tsakam maye

dog house-PL be.among

The dog is among the houses.

mita naye yohua inak

dog during night eat-NEG

The dog does not eat during the night.

mita tsaka nahe

dog house inside

The dog is inside the house.

mita nahe tsaka ina

dog inside house eat

The dog is eating inside the house.

relational

tatse
Kala	meaning	example	role
nya	benefactive (purpose), "for"	itla nya ta This is for you.	relational
kue	appositive, essive ("as, like")	tsaka nayo kue muanya My house is like a hole.	relational

locative

adjectives

Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.

mita inya - dog be.hungry
- The dog hungers.
- The dog is hungry.
- The hungry dog.
- A hungry dog.

tsaka ketla - house be.red
- The house is red.
- The red house.
- A red house.

adverbs

Temporal adverbs in Kala precede the verb phrase they modify. Other adverbs follow the verb or adjective they modify and are explicitly marked by -n.

questions

There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers. Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle ka at the end of the sentence.

mita ina - dog eat - The dog eats.
- mita ina ka - dog eat Q - Does the dog eat?

The other type contains a question word and is followed by ka:

kanyo
	Kala	gloss	English
object	ke mita ina ka	O dog eat Q	What does the dog eat?
person	ko ina ka	person eat Q	Who eats?
possession	koyo mita ina ka	person-POSS dog eat Q	Whose dog eats?
manner	to mita ina ka	manner dog eat Q	How does the dog eat?
place	mo mita ina ka	place dog eat Q	Where does the dog eat?
reason	nye mita ina ka	reason dog eat Q	Why does the dog eat?
time	ama mita ina ka	time dog eat Q	When does the dog eat?
amount	uku mita ina ka	amount dog eat Q	How much/many does the dog eat?
which	ula mita ina ka	any dog eat Q	Which dog eats?

clauses

comparative

In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”

tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka

house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG

His house is bigger than mine.

ke mauam tayo yanaha

O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG

Your flowers are the most yellow.

iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha

PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG

This building is newer than your home.

relative

In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix -tle (or -le if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns who, what, which, where are not used in Kala as in English.

yalapa - to be able to walk produces: yalapatle - who/which/that can walk
yalapak - not to be able to walk produces: yalapanketle - who/which/that can't walk

This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.

na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya

1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know

I know the man who is coming to lunch.

ke naka patlole pako

O woman sweep-REL young

The woman who is sweeping is young.

The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative -k.

itsaka na sutahuetle

PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL

This is the house in which I live.

itsaka na sutahueyetle

PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL

This is the house in which I lived.

numbers

uku
Kala	number	English	Kala	number	English	Kala	number	English
ye'o	0	zero	tsa'o	6	six	nya'o	500	five hundred
na'o	1	one	ka'o	7	seven	tle'o	10³	(one) thousand
ta'o	2	two	pa'o	8	eight	mue'o	10⁴	ten thousand
ha'o	3	three	sa'o	9	nine	kye'o	10⁵	(one) hundred thousand
ma'o	4	four	ue'o	10	ten	nte'o	10⁶	(one) million
ya'o	5	five	nye'o	100	(one) hundred	hue'o	10⁹	(one) billion

forming larger numbers

uena'o - eleven / 11
taue'o - twenty / 20
nyeka'o - one hundred seven / 107
hanyetauetsa'o (long form) / hatatsa'o (short form) - three hundred twenty six / 326
tsatletauema'o - six thousand and twenty four / 6024

other number forms


Kala	number	English	ordinal	multiple	fractional
na'o	1	one	kina'o first	tina'o once	-
ueta'o	12	twelve	kiueta'o twelfth	tiueta'o twelve times	iueta'o a twelfth
yauema'o (yama'o)	54	fifty four	kiyama'o fifty fourth	tiyama'o 54 times	iyama'o a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o	106	one hundred (and) six	kinyetsa'o 106^th	tinyetsa'o 106 times	inyetsa'o a 106^th
katle'o	7000	seven thousand	kikatle'o seven thousandth	tikatle'o 7000 times	ikatle'o 1/7000

Kala