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The Kala conlang...

Introduction

Word Order

The basic structure of a Kala sentence is:

AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or SOV)

The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:

mita tlaka anya - dog man see - The dog sees the man.
tlaka mita anya - man dog see - The man sees the dog.

In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.

Comparisons

When things being compared have equal characteristics, the comparison of equality is used.

mita kue tahi taha - dog like boy big - The dog is as big as the boy.
mpa'a kue mosa niha - movie like book nice - The movie is as good as the book.

If two things are not equal, they are unequal.

nanku ke manyo itlok - 1pl.RECP O height same-NEG - We are not the same height.
ta kue na manyoha - 2sg like 1sg height-AUG - You are taller than I.

ke no ta'o poku itlok - O thing two cost same-NEG - The two items do not cost the same.
potonyo kue ninka mpahaka - photo-tool as television expensive-AUG - The camera is more expensive than the television.

Questions

There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers. Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle ka at the end of the sentence.

mita ina - dog eat - The dog eats.
- mita ina ka - dog eat Q - Does the dog eat?

The other type of question contains a question word and is followed by ka:

ke mita ina ka - O dog eat Q - What does the dog eat?
ko ina ka - person eat Q - Who eats?
koyo mita ina ka - person-POSS dog eat Q - Whose dog eats?
to mita ina ka - manner dog eat Q - How does the dog eat?
mo mita ina ka - place dog eat Q - Where does the dog eat?
nye mita ina ka - reason dog eat Q - Why does the dog eat?
ama mita ina ka - time dog eat Q - When does the dog eat?
uku mita ina ka - amount dog eat Q - How much/many does the dog eat?
ula mita ina ka - any dog eat Q - Which dog eats?

Borrowing

Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:

kala – to speak, talk, converse; from Arabic takallama
na – I, me; from Arabic ʾanā
pato – duck (Anatidae); from Spanish pato
tsenka – orange; from Chinese chéng
uasi – to take, get, acquire; from Lakota wasichu
myonta – to allow, permit; from Finnish myöntää
a – to be, exist, yes; from Japanese aru

Parts of Speech

Kala has three parts of speech, each with several subgroups. Nouns and verbs are substantive, while particles tend to be only functional.

noma - nouns
1. nkalo - personal pronouns
2. uatse - demonstratives
uati - verbs
1. pusa - adverbials
2. tatse - locative verbs (prepositions)
3. keyo - descriptive verbs (adjectives)
peya - particles
1. nita - interjections
2. eka - affixes

Morphology

Nouns

Number

general plural

Kala does not require the plural be marked if it is understood through context, and only animate pronouns are marked, whereas inanimate nouns need not be marked. General plurals are formed with –m (or –lo if the final syllable contains m).

mita / mitam - dog / dogs
kuma / kumalo - bear / bears

mass nouns

Mass nouns include liquids, powders, and substances, such as maya (water), hyeka (sand), and tleno (wood). They do not normally require determiners or the plural. However, one may add these to indicate specific examples or different types:

tlenom – woods (e.g. various kinds)
mayam - waters (e.g. various locations)

collective

The collective plural is marked by tli-, derived from tatli, meaning group; collection; gathering. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL).

mita – dog / tlimita – pack of dogs
yama – mountain / tliyamalo – mountain range
tsaka – house / tlitsaka – neighborhood
puku – clothing / tlipuku – wardrobe

other quantifiers

Personal Pronouns

Verbs

Tense

Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past and future tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("is about to..."), distant future ("will...in a long while"), recent past ("just ..."), and remote past ("...a long while ago"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings -ha and -hi.

The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb ima, "now; at this time":

ima mita ina - now dog eat - The dog is eating right now.

If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.

Example: yomaye nam ina - yesterday 1pl eat - We ate yesterday.

eme
	Kala	gloss	English
Present	mita ina	dog eat	The dog eats.
Past	mita inaye	dog eat-PST	The dog ate.
Recent Past	mita inayehi or -hye	dog eat-REC	The dog just ate.
Remote Past	mita inayeha	dog eat-REM	The dog ate a long while ago.
Future	mita inatli	dog eat-FUT	The dog will eat.
Immediate Future	mita inatlihi or -tlai	dog eat-IMM	The dog will eat soon.
Distant Future	mita inatliha	dog eat-DIS	The dog will eat a long while from now.

Aspect

The progressive, also called the continuous [CONT], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with -nko, from nkoso - "to continue; proceed; progress". The perfecive aspect indicates that an action is completed [PFV]. It is often translated by the English present perfect (have done some-thing). It is marked with -pua, from opua - "to end; finish; complete". The inchoative aspect refers to the beginning of a state [INCH]. It is marked with -mu, from mula - "to begin; start; initiate". The frequentative aspect refers to a repeated action [FREQ]. It is marked with -nua, from nua - "frequent; often; regular".

ti'a
	Kala	gloss	English
Progressive	mita inanko	dog eat-CONT	The dog is eating.
Perfective	mita inapua	dog eat-PFV	The dog has eaten.
Inchoative	mita inamu	dog eat-INCH	The dog begins to eat.
Frequentative	mita inanua	dog eat-FREQ	The dog eats often.

Mood

negative

The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –k or –nke (when the last syllable contains /k/).

mita inayek - dog eat-PST-NEG - The dog did not eat.
mita mokunke - dog sleep-NEG - The dog does not sleep.

Particles

Conjunctions

ma - and; also; too; as well
ehe (me) - but; yet; however
ua - or; either
ue - either X or Y
uenke (uek) - neither X nor Y
yatli - therefore; if X then Y
yema - both X and Y

Function words

Interjections

Kala

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