Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Bilabial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Labio-velar
|
Uvular
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
n
|
ɲ
|
ŋ
|
|
(ɴ)
|
| "Clear" plosive
|
p b
|
t d
|
c ɟ
|
k g
|
|
q ɢ
|
| Aspirated plosive
|
pʰ bʰ
|
tʰ dʰ
|
cʰ ɟʰ
|
kʰ gʰ
|
|
qʰ ɢʰ
|
| Ejective plosive
|
pʼ
|
tʼ
|
cʼ
|
kʼ
|
|
qʼ
|
| Implosive
|
ɓ
|
ɗ
|
ʄ
|
ɠ
|
|
ʛ
|
| Fricative
|
|
s
|
|
|
|
|
| Trill
|
|
r
|
|
|
|
(ʀ)
|
| Approximant
|
|
l
|
j
|
|
w
|
|
Spelling
- /p t c k q/ p t c k q
- /pʰ tʰ cʰ kʰ qʰ/ ph th ch kh qh
- /pʼ tʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ/ p̕ t̕ c̕ k̕ q̕
- /b d ɟ g ɢ/ b d j g ġ
- /bʰ dʰ ɟʰ gʰ ɢʰ/ bh dh jh gh ġh
- /ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ/ b̕ d̕ j̕ g̕ ġ̕
- /s/ s
- /m n ɲ ŋ~ɴ/ m n ṇ ŋ
- /r~ʀ l/ r l
- /j w/ y w
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Unrounded
|
Rounded
|
| Close
|
iː
|
|
|
uː
|
| Near-Close
|
|
ɪ
|
ʊ
|
|
| Mid-Close
|
eː
|
ɘ
|
ɵ
|
oː
|
| Mid-Open
|
ɛː
|
ɜ
|
ɞ
|
ɔː
|
| Open
|
|
ä äː
|
|
|
Spelling
- /iː uː/ í ú
- /eː oː/ é ó
- /ɛː ɔː/ ê ô
- /äː/ a
- /ɪ ʊ/ i u
- /ɘ ɵ/ e o
- /ɜ ɞ/ è ò
- /ä/ a
Phonotactics
(C)(C)V(ː)(R/s)(C)
Accent
- Acute accent on initial syllable.
Grammar
Nouns
- nominative-accusative alignment with marked nominative
- 3A secundative alignment (S/A = Nominative, D = Pegative, P/R = Accusative, T = Instrumental)
- 8 cases (suffixal): Nominative, Pegative, Accusative, Instrumental, Genitive, Ablative, Allative, Benefactive
- noun class system (suffixal): Animate, Inanimate
- number combined with noun class: singular, paucal, plural
- definiteness (articles): Gnomic, Indefinite, Definite proper, Definite distant
- nominal tense (suffixal): past, present, future
Definiteness + [Root + Root extension(s) + (Noun class + Number) + Case + Nominal tense]
Noun class and number
|
|
Animate
|
Inanimate
|
| Singular
|
-ar- / -r-
|
banura
|
man
|
-
|
tkacʼa
|
stone
|
| Paucal
|
-akʼ- / -kʼ-
|
banuakʼa
|
few men
|
-akʼ- / -kʼ-
|
tkacʼakʼa
|
few stones
|
| Plural
|
-it- / -t-
|
banuita
|
men
|
-es- / -s-
|
tkacʼesa
|
stones
|
Declension
| Nominative
|
-a
|
wolqhara
|
wolf
|
| Pegative
|
-e
|
wolqhare
|
| Accusative
|
-
|
wolqhar
|
| Instrumental
|
-ní
|
wolqharní
|
by/with wolf
|
| Genitive
|
-yò
|
wolqharyò
|
of wolf
|
| Ablative
|
-tʼo
|
wolqhartʼo
|
from wolf
|
| Allative
|
-ôs
|
wolqharôs
|
to wolf
|
| Benefactive
|
-dʼa
|
wolqhardʼa
|
for wolf
|
Nominal tense
| Past
|
-li
|
kʼámarali
|
ex-wife
|
| Present
|
-
|
kʼámara
|
wife
|
| Future
|
-sú
|
kʼámarasú
|
future wife
|
Definiteness
| Gnomic
|
-
|
banu
|
man
|
| Indefinite
|
ês
|
ês banu
|
a man
|
| Definite proper
|
da
|
da banu
|
the man
|
| Definite distant
|
qhá
|
qhá banu
|
yonder man
|
Verbs
- aspects (suffixal): Perfective-Imperfective + Frequentative, Momentane
- voices (infixal): Active, Reflexive vs Causative
- three subjective and objective persons (suffixal)
- three moods (cliticized): Indicative, Conditional, Subjunctive
- negative verb
(Root + Voice) + Root extension(s) + Aspect + Subject + Object + Mood
Aspect
|
|
Main form
|
Frequentative
|
Momentane
|
| Imperfective
|
-
|
swél-
|
to shine
|
-né-
|
swélné-
|
to glisten
|
-
|
| Perfective
|
-ri-
|
swélri-
|
to lighten
|
-yu-
|
swélyu-
|
to glisten (as fully executed, ended series)
|
-tò-
|
swéltò-
|
to glint (as momentaneous event)
|
Voice
|
|
Performative
|
Causative
|
| Active
|
-
|
yôdh-
|
to see
|
-ra-
|
yôradh-
|
to show
|
| Reflexive
|
-si-
|
yôsidh-
|
to see self
|
-ṇi-
|
yôṇidh-
|
to show self
|
Person
Subject / Agent / Donor
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-en / -n
|
I
|
-erò / -rò
|
We, but not you
|
| -emò / -mò
|
We, together with you
|
| 2.
|
-es / -s
|
Thou
|
-etò / -tò
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
-ey / -y
|
He / she / it
|
-eyò / -yò
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
-ek / -k
|
Someone / something
|
Object / Recipient
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-na
|
me
|
-ra
|
us, but not you
|
| -me
|
us, together with you
|
| 2.
|
-sa
|
thee
|
-ta
|
you all
|
| 3.
|
-ya
|
him / her / it
|
-yak
|
them all
|
| 4.
|
-ka
|
Someone / something
|
Theme
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-n
|
I
|
-l
|
we, but not you
|
| -w
|
we, together with you
|
| 2.
|
-s
|
Thou
|
-th
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
-j
|
He / she / it
|
-j
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
-kh
|
Someone / something
|
Mood
| Indicative
|
-
|
êd
|
to go
|
| Conditional
|
-dô
|
êddô
|
would to go
|
| Subjunctive
|
-phú
|
êdphú
|
may to go
|
Non-finite verbs
| Action noun
|
-ló
|
yôdhló
|
vision, seeing
|
| Participles
|
| Adjectival
|
-l-
|
yôdhl-
|
seeing
|
| Adverbial
|
-l-oŋ
|
yôdhloŋ
|
seeing
|
Adjectives
- adjectives are replaced by stative verbs and describing nouns.
- degrees of intensify instead degrees of comparison.
Degrees of intensify
| Very strong
|
bʼá
|
bʼá qtèbʼ
|
to be strong very strongly
|
| Strong
|
gʼò
|
gʼò qtèbʼ
|
to be strong strongly
|
| Average / Normal
|
-
|
qtèbʼ
|
to be strong
|
| Weak
|
tʼe
|
tʼe qtèbʼ
|
to be strong weakly
|
| Very weak
|
yú
|
yú qtèbʼ
|
to be strong very weakly
|
Numerals
Cardinal numerals
| 1.
|
bhyêr
|
| 2.
|
dow
|
| 3.
|
térs
|
| 4.
|
cereth
|
| 5.
|
pèc
|
| 6.
|
sèth
|
| 7.
|
sèdír
|
| 8.
|
athôr
|
| 9.
|
dembhi
|
| 10.
|
déth
|
| 11.
|
déthirbhyêr
|
| 12.
|
déthirdow
|
| 20.
|
dowirdéth
|
| 21.
|
dowirdéth bhyêr
|
| 30
|
térsirdéth
|
| 100.
|
thiti
|
| 101.
|
thiti bhyêr
|
| 120.
|
thiti dowirdéth
|
| 121.
|
thiti dowirdéth bhyêr
|
| 200.
|
dowthit
|
| 1.000.
|
túskhat
|
| 10.000.
|
déth túskhat
|
Derived numerals
|
|
Ordinal
|
Multiplicative
|
Reproductive
|
Distributive
|
Fractional
|
| -[noun class]-i
|
-yáls
|
-sôkh
|
-pá
|
-rídʼ
|
| 1.
|
bhyêrri / bhyêri
|
bhyêryáls
|
bhyêrsôkh
|
bhyêrpá
|
bhyêrrídʼ
|
| 10.
|
déthri / dethi
|
déthyáls
|
déthsôkh
|
déthpá
|
déthrídʼ
|
| 11.
|
déthirbhyêrri / déthirbhyêri
|
déthirbhyêryáls
|
déthirbhyêrsôkh
|
déthirbhyêrpá
|
déthirbhyêrrídʼ
|
| 20.
|
dowirdéthri / dowirdéthi
|
dowirdéthyáls
|
dowirdéthsôkh
|
dowirdéthpá
|
dowirdéthrídʼ
|
| 21.
|
dowirdéth bhyêrri / dowirdéth bhyêri
|
dowirdéth bhyêryáls
|
dowirdéth bhyêrsôkh
|
dowirdéth bhyêrpá
|
dowirdéth bhyêrrídʼ
|
| 100.
|
thitiri / thitiyi
|
thitiyáls
|
thitisôkh
|
thitipá
|
thitirídʼ
|
| 101.
|
thiti bhyêrri / thiti bhyêri
|
thiti bhyêryáls
|
thiti bhyêrsôkh
|
thiti bhyêrpá
|
thiti bhyêrrídʼ
|
| 120.
|
thiti dowirdéthri / thiti dowirdéthi
|
thiti dowirdéthyáls
|
thiti dowirdéthsôkh
|
thiti dowirdéthpá
|
thiti dowirdéthrídʼ
|
| 121.
|
thiti dowirdéth bhyêrri / thiti dowirdéth bhyêri
|
thiti dowirdéth bhyêryáls
|
thiti dowirdéth bhyêrsôkh
|
thiti dowirdéth bhyêrpá
|
thiti dowirdéth bhyêrrídʼ
|
| 200.
|
dowthitri / dowthiti
|
dowthityáls
|
dowthitsôkh
|
dowthitpá
|
dowthitrídʼ
|
| 1000.
|
túskhatri / túskhati
|
túskhatyáls
|
túskhatsôkh
|
túskhatpá
|
túskhatrídʼ
|
| 10.000.
|
déth túskhatri / déth túskhati
|
déth túskhatyáls
|
déth túskhatsôkh
|
déth túskhatpá
|
déth túskhatrídʼ
|
Pronouns
- clusivity in 1. person
- obviative
Personal pronouns
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
nêkʼ
|
I
|
ròs
|
We, but not you
|
| mòs
|
We, together with you
|
| 2.
|
sún
|
Thou
|
tòs
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
ya
|
He / she / it
|
yòs
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
ka
|
Someone / something
|
Possessive pronouns
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
neyi
|
my
|
ròsi
|
our, but not your
|
| mòsi
|
our, together with you
|
| 2.
|
súni
|
thy
|
tòsi
|
your all
|
| 3.
|
yayi
|
his / her / its
|
yòsi
|
their all
|
| 4.
|
kayi
|
someone / something else's
|
Demonstrative pronouns
|
|
Definite proper
|
Definite distant
|
Indefinite
|
| Place
|
dalòpʼ
|
here
|
qhálòpʼ
|
there
|
êslòpʼ
|
somewhere there
|
| Source
|
dalòpʼtʼo
|
from here
|
qhálòpʼtʼo
|
from there
|
êslòpʼtʼo
|
from somewhere there
|
| Purpose direction
|
dalòpʼôs
|
to here
|
qhálòpʼôs
|
to there, so far
|
êslòpʼôs
|
to somewhere there
|
| Path
|
dajhémo
|
this way
|
qhájhémo
|
that way
|
êsjhémo
|
some way
|
| Time
|
datháth
|
now
|
qhátháth
|
then
|
| Method
|
datʼríp
|
in this way
|
qhátʼríp
|
in that way
|
êstʼríp
|
in some way
|
| Quantity
|
dagôl
|
so much
|
| Qualify
|
buda
|
like this here
|
buqhá
|
like that
|
bwês
|
like something there
|
| Reason
|
dastháy
|
for this reason
|
qhástháy
|
for that reason
|
êstháy
|
for some reason
|
Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns
|
|
Interrogative / Relative
|
Indefinite
|
Unlimited
|
| Person / Animate object
|
kʼa
|
who ? which ?
|
kʼate
|
someone
|
alíkʼa
|
anyone
|
| Inanimate object
|
cʼa
|
who ? which ?
|
cʼate
|
someone
|
alícʼa
|
anyone
|
| Place
|
kʼaġʼo
|
where ?
|
kʼaġʼote
|
somewhere
|
alíkʼaġʼo
|
anywhere
|
| Source
|
tʼokʼaġʼo
|
whence ?
|
tʼokʼaġʼote
|
from somewhere
|
alítʼokʼaġʼote
|
from anywhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
ôskʼaġʼo
|
whither ?
|
ôskʼaġʼote
|
to somewhere
|
alíôskʼaġʼote
|
to anywhere
|
| Path
|
kʼajhémo
|
which way ?
|
kʼajhémote
|
via some way
|
alíkʼajhémo
|
via any way
|
| Time
|
kʼatháth
|
when ?
|
kʼatháthte
|
once
|
alíkʼatháth
|
ever
|
| Method
|
kʼatʼríp
|
how ?
|
kʼatʼrípte
|
somehow
|
alíkʼatʼríp
|
anyhow
|
| Quantity
|
kʼagôl
|
how much ?
|
kʼagôlte
|
somehow much
|
alíkʼagôl
|
anyhow much
|
| Qualify
|
bukʼa
|
which one ?
|
bukʼate
|
some
|
alíbukʼa
|
any
|
| Reason
|
kʼadʼa
|
why ?
|
Negative, universal and alternative pronouns
|
|
Negative
|
Universal
|
Alternative
|
| Person / Animate object
|
èlkʼa
|
nobody, nothing
|
bhêskʼa
|
every
|
ninkʼa
|
anyone else
|
| Inanimate object
|
èlcʼa
|
nobody, nothing
|
bhêscʼa
|
every
|
nincʼa
|
anyone else
|
| Place
|
èlkʼaġʼo
|
nowhere
|
bhêskʼaġʼote
|
everywhere
|
ninkʼaġʼo
|
elswhere
|
| Source
|
tʼoêlkʼaġʼo
|
from nowhere
|
tʼobhêskʼaġʼote
|
from everywhere
|
tʼoninkʼaġʼo
|
from elswhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
ôsêlkʼaġʼo
|
to nowhere
|
ôsbhêskʼaġʼote
|
to everywhere
|
ôsninkʼaġʼo
|
to elswhere
|
| Path
|
êljhémo
|
through no way
|
bhêsjhémote
|
through all ways
|
ninjhémo
|
which way else
|
| Time
|
êltháth
|
never
|
bhêstháth
|
always
|
nintháth
|
when else
|
| Method
|
êltʼríp
|
nohow
|
bhêstʼríp
|
in all methods
|
nintʼríp
|
otherwise
|
| Quantity
|
êlgôl
|
nothing
|
ningôl
|
otherwise than so many
|
| Quality
|
êlbu
|
neuter, indistinct
|
bhêsbu
|
any
|
ninbu
|
other
|
Numeral pronouns
| Interrogative / Relative
|
kʼagôl
|
how much ?
|
| Indefinite
|
kʼagôlte
|
write a number
|
| Unlimited
|
alíkʼagôl
|
however many
|
| Negative
|
êlgôl
|
nothing
|
| Alternative
|
ningôl
|
otherwise than so many
|
Reflexive, reciprocal and cooperative pronouns
| Reflexive
|
kho
|
oneself
|
| Reciprocal
|
tʼakho
|
each other
|
| Cooperative
|
úkho
|
together cooperatively
|
Prepositions
Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals
| ú
|
in, inside
|
Accusative
|
| from inside
|
Ablative
|
| to inside
|
Allative
|
|
|
| al
|
on
|
Accusative
|
| from on
|
Ablative
|
| to on
|
Allative
|
|
|
| alaŋ
|
above
|
Accusative
|
| from above
|
Ablative
|
| to above
|
Allative
|
|
|
| udʼu
|
under
|
Accusative
|
| from under
|
Ablative
|
| to under
|
Allative
|
|
|
| kʼete
|
beside
|
Accusative
|
| from beside
|
Ablative
|
| to beside
|
Allative
|
|
|
| tóq
|
away
|
Accusative
|
| from away
|
Ablative
|
| to away
|
Allative
|
|
|
| údow
|
between
|
Accusative
|
| from between
|
Ablative
|
| to between
|
Allative
|
|
|
| tʼawkh
|
behind
|
Accusative
|
| from behind
|
Ablative
|
| to behind
|
Allative
|
|
|
| bè
|
out
|
Accusative
|
| from out
|
Ablative
|
| to out
|
Allative
|
|
|
| úgál
|
around
|
Accusative
|
| from around
|
Ablative
|
| to around
|
Allative
|
|
|
| trôs
|
before, opposite to
|
Accusative
|
| from before, from opposite to
|
Ablative
|
| to before, to opposite to
|
Allative
|
|
|
| útháth
|
during, in time of
|
Accusative
|
| from time of
|
Ablative
|
| to time of
|
Allative
|
|
|
| ká
|
after
|
Accusative
|
| from after
|
Ablative
|
| to after
|
Allative
|
Other postpositions
| Companion, attributive object
|
tʼa
|
with
|
Instrumental
|
| Lack
|
phá
|
without
|
Genitive
|
| Alternative
|
úklotʼ
|
instead
|
Genitive
|
| Contrary
|
trôtʼa
|
against
|
Allative
|
| Resistance
|
bhisu
|
despite, though
|
Genitive
|
| Stylization
|
údʼlêk
|
along to, according to
|
Instrumental
|
Particles
Conjunctions
| Paratactical conjunctions
|
| Copulative
|
é
|
and
|
| Conjunctive
|
édhò
|
also
|
| Disjunctive
|
cá
|
or
|
| Contrastive, exceptional
|
éno
|
but
|
| Consequentive
|
pʼe
|
so
|
| Comparative
|
kuy
|
than
|
| Essive
|
atʼ
|
as
|
|
|
| Hypotactical conjunctions
|
| gwa
|
to, for
|
| qúddhò
|
althought
|
| yethrab
|
because
|
| áchi
|
if
|
| dhò
|
that, providing
|
Modifiers
| Restrictive
|
bhyêro
|
only
|
| Additive
|
yedhò
|
yet
|
| Excessive
|
jó
|
too
|
| Non-witness
|
yôŋ
|
apparently, allegedly
|
Polarity particles
| Affirmative
|
dʼê
|
yes
|
| Negative1
|
lê
|
no
|
1 Only in independent form.
Word formation
Compounding
Derivation
Noun
Noun to noun
| Diminutive
|
-lé-
|
tʼoghara → tʼoghléra
|
daughter → little daughter
|
| Augmentative
|
-gʼan-
|
ġôbha → ġôbhgʼana
|
mountain → grand mountain
|
| Contradiction
|
èl-
|
banura → èlbanura
|
human → non-human
|
| Similarity
|
-khsak-
|
tuntua → tuntukhsaka
|
tree → pseudo-tree
|
| Half
|
pʼala-
|
qutká → pʼalaqutká
|
dog → half-dog
|
| Relational abstract
|
-ryáṇ
|
ghebʼera → ghebʼeryáṇa
|
brother → brotherhood
|
| Related person
|
-chí-
|
báwbhura → báwbhuchíra
|
cow → cowman
|
| Collective
|
-léga-
|
pʼethara → pʼetharléga
|
bird → birds (a a collective)
|
| Place
|
-lòpʼ-
|
khepʼ → khepʼlòpʼa
|
fire → campfire
|
| Art / Craft
|
-tkóyá
|
bʼormakh → bʼormakhtkóyá
|
war → craft of war
|
| Knowledge
|
-kèndh-
|
jʼólyá → jʼólyakèndha
|
herb → herbalism
|
| Expert
|
-chí-
|
jʼólyá → jʼólyachíra
|
herb → herbalist
|
Noun to stative verb
| Similaritive
|
-khsak-
|
merkhara → merkhakhsak-
|
cat → felid
|
| Feature
|
-oth-
|
ksílua → ksíluoth-
|
hair → hairy
|
| Affiliative
|
-sidh-
|
ġôma → ġômsidh-
|
family → familiar
|
| Privative
|
èl-...-oth-
|
kôlbha → èlkôlbhoth-
|
tooth → toothless
|
Verb
Verb to noun
| Agentive
|
-chí-
|
tqúkh- → tqúkhchíra
|
(to) shoot → shooter
|
| Experiencer, adressee
|
[Middle voice's stem]-chí-
|
dákʼ- → dásikʼchíra
|
(to) teach → learner
|
| Result
|
-phál
|
badʼ- → badʼphála
|
(to) fall → (a) fall
|
| Instance
|
-makh-
|
spʼél- → spʼélmakha
|
(to) speak → speech
|
| Instrument
|
-qʼò-
|
bʼê- → bʼêqʼòa
|
(to) beat → whip
|
| Place
|
-lòpʼ-
|
thèm- → thèmlòpʼa
|
(to) kill → slaughterhouse
|
Verb to verb
Stative verb to noun
| Abstract
|
-makh-
|
qtèbʼ- → qtèbʼmakha
|
to be strong → strength
|
Syntax
Word order
Copular verbs
|
|
Positive
|
Negative
|
| Translative
|
psá
|
became
|
lephá
|
don't became
|
| Essive
|
ye
|
be
|
le
|
don't be
|
| Excessive
|
kʼwô
|
cease to be
|
lwô
|
don't cease to be
|
Modal verbs
| Obligative
|
ġhart
|
to must
|
| Jussive
|
láwd
|
to should
|
| Optative
|
níkh
|
to wish
|
| Desiderative
|
ktíkh
|
to want
|
| Dubitative
|
phthòb
|
to doubt
|
| Hypothetical
|
yámb
|
maybe, perhaps
|
| Permissive
|
tôl
|
to let, to permit
|
| Precative
|
slókh
|
to request, to please, to ask
|
| Potentional
|
phêy
|
to may, to be able
|
| Abilitive
|
dhul
|
to can
|
Use of modal verbs
[Modal verb] + [Main verb as an action noun + Accusative zero-ending]
| Jussive
|
láwden ghrésló
|
I should to write.
|
| Desiderative
|
ktíkhen ghrésló
|
I'm wanting to write.
|
| Precative
|
slókhen ghrésló
|
I request to write.
|
Onomastics
Colours
| yéls
|
light
|
| dʼômb
|
dark
|
| kʼílm
|
white
|
| túŋg
|
black
|
| khárg
|
red
|
| drèykʼ
|
reddish
|
| romph
|
pink
|
| bhrós
|
blue
|
| jʼólṇ
|
green
|
| chísn
|
yellow
|
| dháws
|
golden
|
| larkʼ
|
silver
|
| stakʼ
|
orange
|
| bhósm
|
grey
|
| ksundʼ
|
brown
|
| rakhs
|
violet
|
| brén
|
navy blue
|
| tlíkh
|
beige
|
Sides of world
| Direct sides
|
| North
|
black
|
túŋgmá
|
| South
|
white
|
kʼílmá (← kʼilm-makh-a)
|
| East
|
red
|
khárgmá
|
| West
|
gold
|
dháwsmá
|
| Indirect sides
|
| Northeast
|
red black
|
khárgla túŋgmá
|
| Northwest
|
golden black
|
dháwsla túŋgmá
|
| Southeast
|
red white
|
khárgla kʼílmá
|
| Southwest
|
golden white
|
dháwsla kʼílmá
|
Directions
Body parts
Animals
