ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaž: Difference between revisions

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|-
|-
| Uzerian
| Uzerian
| South-West Vrkhazh (originating from the city of ʾUzēr)
| South-West Vrkhazh (originating from the city of ʾUzer)
|-
|-
| Mukhebic
| Mukhebic
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|}
|}


Mukhebic is considered the dialect of business and trading, and originated from Mukheb, one of the two top cities of commerce along with Qazhd. Uzerian is considered the dialect of communication and politics, originating from Uzer, the Capital City where the Emperor or Empress resides. When conducting business and trading with others, it is necessary to communicate in the Mukhebic dialect while the Uzerian dialect is used for everything else, especially involving politics. The knowledge of both dialects is a must for any meaningful life in the Vrkhazhian Empire.
Mukhebic is considered the dialect of business and trading, and originated from Mukheb, and along with Qazhd, make up the Pillars of Trade and Commerce. Uzerian is considered the dialect of politics and military affairs, originating from Uzer, the Capital City where the Emperor or Empress resides. When conducting business and trading with others, it is expected to communicate in the Mukhebic dialect while the Uzerian dialect is used for everything involving politics and the military. The knowledge and fluency of both dialects is a must for any meaningful life in the Vrkhazhian Empire.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting triconsonantal root language. Most roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two letter (biliteral) roots. Vrkhazhian also recognizes four- and five-letter roots, however, these are uncommon. Between and around these roots various infixes, suffixes, circumfixes and prefixes are used to carry grammatical functions or derive words.
Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting triconsonantal root language. Most roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two letter (biliteral) roots. Vrkhazhian also recognizes four- and five-letter roots, however, these are uncommon. Between and around these roots various infixes, suffixes, circumfixes and prefixes are used to carry grammatical functions or derive words.


Roots containing the consonants ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩ are considered weak roots, and are omitted when they occur between a vowel that isn't /a/ and another consonant and in word-final positions.
Roots containing the consonants ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩ are considered weak roots, and become vocalized /i u/ between consonants unless they occur after /a/, in which case, they become diphthongs.


====Nominal morphology====
====Nominal morphology====
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  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
The Nominative case in Vrkhazhian marks the subject of a verb, while the Accusative case marks the object. The Accusative case is denoted with the prefix "tu-/ta-/ti-" agreeing in gender with the noun. The Allative case in Vrkhazhian is used to denote movement towards the marked noun while the Ablative case is used to denote movement away from the marked noun.
*The Nominative case in Vrkhazhian marks the subject of a verb, while the Accusative case marks the object. The Accusative case is denoted with the prefix "tu-/ta-/ti-" agreeing in gender with the noun.
The Genitive case is used to denote the possessor of an object such as "Mark" in the sentence "Mark's cat". Proper nouns such as people and places are not marked with a genitive suffix.
*The Allative case in Vrkhazhian is used to denote movement towards the marked noun while the Ablative case is used to denote movement away from the marked noun.
The distributive case in Vrkhazhian is used to denote something occurring to each individual of a set, thus the noun can only be declined for singular number. The meaning of the distributive case is roughly translated as "each" or "per". The prefix "šar-" is used to denote the distributive.
*The Genitive case is used to denote the possessor of an object such as "Mark" in the sentence "Mark's cat". Proper nouns such as people and places are not marked with a genitive suffix.
*The Distributive case in Vrkhazhian is used to denote something occurring to each individual of a set, thus the noun can only be declined for singular number. The meaning of the distributive case is roughly translated as "each" or "per". The prefix "šar-" is used to denote the distributive.


=====Construct state=====
=====Construct state=====
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  |-
  |-
  ! Singular
  ! Singular
  | ''ʾud-i'' || ''ʾud-a'' || ''ʾaẇd-u''
  | ''ʾud-i'' || ''ʾud-a'' || ''ʾud-u''
  |-
  |-
  ! Plural
  ! Plural
  | ''ʾaẇd-il'' || ''ʾaẇd-an'' || ''ʾud-um''
  | ''ʾud-il'' || ''ʾud-an'' || ''ʾud-um''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Past Simple
  ! Past Simple
  | ''nosdon'' || ''nasdunam'' || oppressed || ''nusdun'' || ''nisdanam'' || was oppressed
  | ''nisdan'' || ''nisdanam'' || oppressed || ''nusden'' || ''nusdenam'' || was oppressed
  |-
  |-
  ! Past Prog.
  ! Past Prog.
  | ''yusdon'' || ''yusdenam'' || was oppressing || ''yesdan'' || ''yesdunam'' || was being oppressed
  | ''yosdan'' || ''yosdanam'' || was oppressing || ''yesden'' || ''yesdenam'' || was being oppressed
  |-
  |-
  ! Present Simple
  ! Present Simple
  | ''sudan'' || ''sudnam'' || oppress || ''sadēn'' || ''sadnam'' || is oppressed
  | ''sudan'' || ''sudnam'' || oppress || ''saden'' || ''sadnam'' || is oppressed
  |-
  |-
  ! Present Prog.
  ! Present Prog.
  | ''husdan'' || ''husdinam'' || is oppressing || ''hasden'' || ''hasdonam'' || is being oppressed  
  | ''husdan'' || ''husdanam'' || is oppressing || ''hasden'' || ''hasdenam'' || is being oppressed  
  |-
  |-
  ! Future
  ! Future
  | ''ʾasden'' || ''ʾasdenam'' || will oppress || ''ʾisdin'' || ''ʾisdinam'' || will be oppressed
  | ''ʾasdan'' || ''ʾasdanam'' || will oppress || ''ʾisden'' || ''ʾisdenam'' || will be oppressed
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Past Simple
  ! Past Simple
  | ''nōlmoniš'' || ''nalmunšam'' || wrote to self
  | ''nilmonaš'' || ''nilmonšam'' || wrote to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Past Progressive
  ! Past Progressive
  | ''yulmoniš'' || ''yulmenšam'' || was writing to self
  | ''yolmonaš'' || ''yolmonšam'' || was writing to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Present Simple
  ! Present Simple
  | ''lumnaš'' || ''lumnašam'' || write to self
  | ''ləmnaš'' || ''ləmnašam'' || write to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Present Progressive
  ! Present Progressive
  | ''halmunaš'' || ''halmunšam'' || is writing to self
  | ''hulmonaš'' || ''hulmonšam'' || is writing to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Future
  ! Future
  | ''ʾilmaneš'' || ''ʾilmanšam'' || will write to self
  | ''ʾilmonaš'' || ''ʾilmonšam'' || will write to self
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Jussive
  ! Jussive
  | ''jiṗmat'' || ''jiṗmetam'' || have to walk || ''jubʾil'' || ''jubʾulam'' || have to be punished
  | ''jiṗmat'' || ''jiṗmatam'' || have to walk || ''jubʾel'' || ''jubʾelam'' || have to be punished
  |-
  |-
  ! Potential
  ! Potential
  | ''ʾibeṗmat'' || ''ʾibeṗmetam'' || can walk || ''ʾibibʾul'' || ''ʾibibʾolam'' || can be punished
  | ''ʾibeṗmat'' || ''ʾibeṗmatam'' || can walk || ''ʾababʾel'' || ''ʾababʾelam'' || can be punished
  |-
  |-
  ! Conditional
  ! Conditional
  | ''ʾimaṗmat'' || ''ʾimaṗmutam'' || would walk || ''ʾimobʾil'' || ''ʾimobʾilam'' || would be punished
  | ''ʾamaṗmat'' || ''ʾamaṗmatam'' || would walk || ''ʾimobʾel'' || ''ʾimobʾelam'' || would be punished
  |-
  |-
  ! Commissive
  ! Commissive
  | ''ḵuṗtamit'' || ''ḵuṗtamtam'' || shall walk || ''ḵabteʾul'' || ''ḵabteʾlam'' || shall be punished  
  | ''ḵuṗṭumat'' || ''ḵuṗṭumtam'' || shall walk || ''ḵabtaʾel'' || ''ḵabtaʾlam'' || shall be punished  
  |-
  |-
  ! Subjunctive
  ! Subjunctive
  | ''ṇtaṗmit'' || ''ṇtaṗmitam'' || may walk || ''ṇtibʾul'' || ''ṇtibʾulam'' || may be punished
  | ''ṇtaṗmat'' || ''ṇtaṗmatam'' || may walk || ''ṇtibʾel'' || ''ṇtibʾelam'' || may be punished
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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====Adverbial morphology====  
====Adverbial morphology====  
Adverbs in Vrkhazhian are marked for number in agreement with the verb they modify. Adverbs always follow the verb they modify. Adverbs are placed into the stem ʾeCCaCu. An example of this is when the root '''ʾ-n-l''' (to be blind) is placed into the stem, it becomes "blindly".
Adverbs in Vrkhazhian are marked for number in agreement with the verb they modify. Adverbs always follow the verb they modify. Adverbs are placed into the stem CeCuCat. An example of this is when the root '''ʾ-n-l''' (to be blind) is placed into the stem, it becomes "blindly".


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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  |-
  |-
  ! Adverb
  ! Adverb
  | ''ʾeʾnalu'' || ''ʾeʾnalyam''
  | ''ʾenulat'' || ''ʾenultam''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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===Syntax===
===Syntax===
====Nominal phrases====
====Nominal phrases====
Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. Adjectives either follow or precede the noun depending on its semantic class (see adjective section above). An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ''ṛ-Vakkami Yat-Vṛḵaẕ, ʾIḥamek ʾAraš-Hijunu, meṭajad šujaki nomtoḥ'' "Arash-Hijunu Ihamek, the Emperor of Vrkhazh, united his people" which is analyzed in the following table:
Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. Adjectives either follow or precede the noun depending on its semantic class (see adjective section above). An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ''ṛ-Vakkami Yat-Vṛḵaẕ, ʾIḥamek ʾAraš-Hijunu, meṭajad šujaki nimtaḥ'' "Arash-Hijunu Ihamek, the Emperor of Vrkhazh, united his people" which is analyzed in the following table:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| ''šujaki'' || his || genitive singular pronoun
| ''šujaki'' || his || genitive singular pronoun
|-
|-
| ''nomtoḥ'' || unite || active past singular
| ''nimtaḥ'' || unite || active past singular
|-
|-
|}
|}
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vs. a passive sentence:
vs. a passive sentence:


:'''Nišṉamam ṛ-havir ṛ-mašṉamad ʾim Hiqal.'''
:'''Nušṉemam ṛ-havir ṛ-mašṉamad ʾim Hiqal.'''
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| Align="center" | ''Ni-šṉam-am'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-havir'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-mašṉamad'' || Align="center" | ''ʾim'' || Align="center" | ''Hiqal''
| Align="center" | ''Nu-šṉem-am'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-havir'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-mašṉamad'' || Align="center" | ''ʾim'' || Align="center" | ''Hiqal''
|-
|-
| PASS-PST-build-PL || Align="center" | DEF-mercury || Align="center" | DEF-golem-NEUT-PL-NOM || Align="center" | by || Align="center" | Hiqal-ACC
| PASS-PST-build-PL || Align="center" | DEF-mercury || Align="center" | DEF-golem-NEUT-PL-NOM || Align="center" | by || Align="center" | Hiqal-ACC
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===History===
===History===
The script has been in use for at least 1,100 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The script is a descendant of the Takshian logographic script.
The script has been in use for at least 820 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The script is a descendant of the Takshian logographic script.


===Letter names===
===Letter names===
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! Phoneme
! Phoneme
|-
|-
| [[File:Yay.PNG|30px|ʾAẇda Yav]]
| [[File:Yay.PNG|30px|ʾUda Yav]]
| ʾAẇda Yav
| ʾUda Yav
| '''ẏ''' [e̯]
| '''ẏ''' [e̯]


|-
|-
| [[File:Waw.PNG|30px|ʾAẇda Waj]]
| [[File:Waw.PNG|30px|ʾUda Waj]]
| ʾAẇda Waj
| ʾUda Waj
| '''ẇ''' [o̯]
| '''ẇ''' [o̯]


Revision as of 07:04, 17 April 2015

Vrkhazhian (ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaẕ) is a Northern Hašakam language that is spoken by the Vrkhazh who live in the region known as Yat-Vṛḵaẕ. The earliest form of this language, known as Classical Vrkhazhian, was spoken as early as 850 years ago.



Flag-Vrkhazh.png
Vrkhazhian
ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaẕ
Pronounced: /ʔaçˈdu jatβɹ̩ˈxaʝ/
Spoken: Vrkhazh (Yat-Vṛḵaẕ)
Writing system: ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Genealogy: Proto-Haṣákaṃ Languages
Himoshian
Taksheyut
Pre-Vrkhazhian
Classical Vrkhazhian
Modern Vrkhazhian
Typology
Morphological type: highly fusional, weakly agglutinative
Morphosyntactic alignment: nominative-accusative
Basic word order: SOV/VSO
Credits
Creator: Malcolm G. Holborne


History

Dialects

Vrkhazhian has two major dialects and several minor dialects. The area of the two dialects are divided by two distinct sides; the north-eastern portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Mukhebic, while the south-western portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Uzerian. The numerous smaller dialects are spread in and around these two halves with varying degrees of density.

The table below lists the two major dialects:

Dialects of Vrkhazhian
Dialect Location
Uzerian South-West Vrkhazh (originating from the city of ʾUzer)
Mukhebic North-East Vrkhazh (originating from the city of Muḵeb)

Mukhebic is considered the dialect of business and trading, and originated from Mukheb, and along with Qazhd, make up the Pillars of Trade and Commerce. Uzerian is considered the dialect of politics and military affairs, originating from Uzer, the Capital City where the Emperor or Empress resides. When conducting business and trading with others, it is expected to communicate in the Mukhebic dialect while the Uzerian dialect is used for everything involving politics and the military. The knowledge and fluency of both dialects is a must for any meaningful life in the Vrkhazhian Empire.

Phonology

Consonants

The table below shows the 42 consonant phonemes found in the Uzerian dialect of Vrkhazhian:

Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m͛ [m̥] m [m] n͛ [n̥] n [n] ṉ [ɴ]
Stop Light p͛ [ʰp] t͛ [ʰt] k͛ [ʰk] q͛ [ʰq]
Plain p [p] b [b] t [t] d [d] k [k] g [g] q [q] ʾ [ʔ]
Dark ṗ [pʶ] ṭ [tʶ]
Affricate ḏ [t͡s] č [c͡ç] j [ɟ͡ʝ]
Fricative f [ɸ] v [β] s [s] z [z] š [ç] ẕ [ʝ] ḵ [x] ğ [ɣ] ḥ [χ] h [h]
Approximant r͛ [ɹ̥] r [ɹ] y [j] w [w]
Trill ř [r] ṟ [ʀ]
Lateral Approximant l͛ [l̥] l [l]
Lateral Fricative ḻ [ʎ̝̊]
Where consonants appear in pairs, the left is voiceless and the right is voiced.


The table below shows the 42 consonant phonemes found in the Mukhebic Dialect of Vrkhazhian:

Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m͛ [m̥] m [m] n͛ [n̥] n [n] ṉ [ɴ]
Stop Plain p [p] b [b] t [t] d [d] k [k] g [g] q [q] ʾ [ʔ]
Prenasal ḅ [ᵐb] ḍ [ⁿd] ġ [ᵑg]
Affricate ṯ [t͡s] ḏ[d͡z] č [c͡ç] j [ɟ͡ʝ]
Fricative Plain f [f] v [v] s [s] z [z] š [ç] ẕ [ʝ] ḵ [x] ğ [ɣ] ḥ [χ] h [h]
Prenasal ṿ [ᶬv] ẓ [ⁿz] ẕ̇ [ᶮʝ] ğ̣ [ᵑɣ]
Approximant r͛ [ɹ̥] r [ɹ] y [j] w [w]
Trill ř [r]
Lateral Approximant l͛ [l̥] l [l]
Lateral Fricative ḻ [ʎ̝̊]
Where consonants appear in pairs, the left is voiceless and the right is voiced.

Vowels

  Front Near- front Central Near- back Back
Close
Blank vowel trapezoid.svg
i
u
 
 
 
e̞
ə
o̞
 
 
 
 
 
a
  Near-close
Close-mid
Mid
Open-mid
Near-open
Open
The vowel phoneme /a/ is analyzed as being a continuum of open vowels ranging from front to back that are in free variation.
Romanization of Vowel Phonemes
Front Central Back
Close i [i] u [u]
Mid e [e̞] ə [ə] o [o̞]
Open a [a]
Vrkhazhian Diphthongs
IPA Letter Example
ae̯ aẏ like eye
ao̯ aẇ like cow
ɛo̯ eẇ no English equivalent

Allophony

Stops:

  • The alveolar stop consonants /t d/ become [θ ð] in word-final positions if they occur after front vowels /e̞ i/.
  • Voiced and voiceless stop plus glottal stop clusters (i.e. /pʔ kʔ gʔ/) are phonetically analyzed as ejectives and implosives (i.e. [pʼ tʼ ɠ]), respectively.
  • The velar stop consonant /k g/ are assimilated into /q/ in the environment of a uvular stop and uvular nasal consonant.
  • The vowels /i ə u/ are lowered to [e̞ a o̞] if they occur after a voiceless uvular stop /q/.

Nasals:

  • The alveolar nasal /n/ is analyzed as [ɲ] before palatal consonants, [ŋ] before velar consonants (including /w/), and [ɴ] before uvular consonants.
  • The uvular nasal /ɴ/ is analyzed as a velar nasal [ŋ] before palatal and velar consonants (including /w/).

Liquid:

  • The voiced alveolar trill /r/ is phonemically analyzed as /r/, however it is phonetically realized as being rounded [rʷ].

Syllable Structure

The syllable structure of Vrkhazhian is analyzed as (C)C(V)(C)(C), where C stands for a consonant, V stands for a vowel. CV and CVC are most common syllable types in Vrkhazhian, while in contrast, C and CCVCC, are the rarest. Though not listed in the phonemic inventory table above, there also exists a syllabic rhotic /ɹ̩/ in Vrkhazhian that is romanized as ⟨ṛ⟩ as well as two syllabic nasals /m̩ n̩/ romanized as ⟨ṃ ṇ⟩.

All words that appear to begin with vowels are analyzed as containing a glottal stop before them, which is usually omitted in fast speech. Vrkhazhian is very strict in preventing hiatus between vowels; this is done by adding an epenthetic /h/ between the two vowels.

Onset

The follow table lists the possible consonants that can occur as the onset:

Nasal:
/m̥/, /m/, /n̥/, /n/, /ɴ/
Stop:
/p/, /ʰp/, /pʶ/, /b/, /t/, /ʰt/, /tʶ/, /d/,
/k/, /ʰk/, /g/, /q/, /ʰq/, /ʔ/
Stop plus Nasal:
/dm/, /km/, /gm/, /gn/
Stop plus Stop:
/pt/, /pd/, /pʔ/, /bt/, /bd/, /tp/, /tʔ/, /db/,
/kp/, /kb/, /kt/, /kd/, /kʔ/, /gp/, /gb/, /gt/,
/gd/, /gʔ/
Stop plus /w/:
/kw/, /gw/, /qw/
Stop plus Fricative:
/kɸ/, /gβ/, /kç/, /gʝ/
Stop plus Liquid:
/pɹ/, /bɹ/, /tɹ/, /dɹ/, /kɹ/, /gɹ/, /qɹ/,
/pr/, /br/, /kr/, /gr/, /qr/,
/pʀ/, /bʀ/, /tʀ/, /dʀ/, /kʀ/, /gʀ/, /qʀ/,
/pl/, /bl/, /ql/
Affricate:
/t͡s/, /c͡ç/, /ɟ͡ʝ/
Fricative:
/ɸ/, /β/, /s/, /z/, /ç/, /ʝ/, /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, h/
Fricative plus Stop:
/zb/, /zg/, /xp/, /xt/, /ɣb/, /ɣd/
Fricative plus Affricate:
/çc͡ç/, /ʝɟ͡ʝ/
Fricative plus Fricative:
/xs/
Fricative plus /w/:
/sw/, /zw/, /çw/, /ʝw/, /xw/, /ɣw/, /χw/
Fricative plus Liquid:
/sɹ/, /zɹ/, /çɹ/, /ʝɹ/, /xɹ/, /ɣɹ/, /χɹ/,
/ɸr/, /βr/, /çr/, /ʝr/, /xr/, /ɣr/, /χr/,
/sʀ/, /zʀ/,
/sl/, /zl/, /çl/, /ʝl/, /xl/, /ɣl/, /χl/
Approximant:
/j/, /w/
Liquid:
/?ɹ̥/, /ɹ/, /r/, /ʀ/, /l̥/, /l/, /lʶ/, /ʎ̝̊/

Nucleus

Any of the vowels and diphthongs can appear in a syllable as well as the syllabic consonants /m̩ n̩ ɹ̩/

Coda

The following table lists the possible consonants that can occur as the coda:

Nasal:
/m̥/, /m/, /n̥/, /n/, /ɴ/
Nasal plus Stop:
/mt/, /nt/
Stop:
/p/, /ʰp/, /pʶ/, /b/, /t/, /ʰt/, /tʶ/, /d/,
/k/, /ʰk/, /g/, /q/, /ʰq/, /ʔ/
Stop plus Stop:
/pt/, /kt/
Stop plus Fricative:
/kɸ/, /kç/,
Affricate:
/t͡s/, /c͡ç/, /ɟ͡ʝ/
Fricative:
/ɸ/, /β/, /s/, /z/, /ç/, /ʝ/, /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, h/
Fricative plus Stop:
/çt/, /ʝd/, /xp/, /xt/, /xk/, /ɣb/, /ɣd/, /ɣg/
Fricative plus Affricate:
/çc͡ç/, /ʝɟ͡ʝ/
Fricative plus Liquid:
/ɹɸ/, /ɹβ/, /ɹs/, /ɹz/, /ɹç/, /ɹʝ/, /ɹx/, /ɹɣ/,
/rɸ/, /rβ/, /rç/, /rʝ/, /rx/, /rɣ/, /rχ/,
/ls/, /lz/, /lç/, /lʝ/, /lx/, /lɣ/, /lχ/
Approximant:
/j/, /w/
Liquid:
/ɹ̥/, /ɹ/, /r/, /ʀ/, /l̥/, /l/, /lʶ/, /ʎ̝̊/
Liquid plus Stop:
/ɹp/, /ɹb/, /ɹt/, /ɹd/, /ɹk/, /ɹg/, /ɹq/,
/rp/, /rb/, /rt/, /rd/, /rk/, /rg/, /rq/,
/ʀp/, /ʀb/, /ʀt/, /ʀd/, /ʀk/, /ʀg/, /ʀq/,
/lp/, /lb/, /lt/, /ld/, /lk/, /lg/ /lq/

Stress

Stress in Vrkhazhian is generally placed on the last or second-to-last syllable.

Grammar

Morphology

Overview

Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting triconsonantal root language. Most roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two letter (biliteral) roots. Vrkhazhian also recognizes four- and five-letter roots, however, these are uncommon. Between and around these roots various infixes, suffixes, circumfixes and prefixes are used to carry grammatical functions or derive words.

Roots containing the consonants ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩ are considered weak roots, and become vocalized /i u/ between consonants unless they occur after /a/, in which case, they become diphthongs.

Nominal morphology

Vrkhazhian has three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. These genders are strictly semantic, thus most nouns, such as inanimate objects, fall into the category of neuter.

Vrkhazhian has two numbers (singular and plural) and six cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, allative, ablative, and distributive). The table below shows the noun ʾalkad (soldier, guardian) declined in various cases.

Noun paradigm
Noun (masc.) Noun (fem.) Noun (neut.)
Nominative singular ʾalkad-i ʾalkad-a ʾalkad
Genitive singular ʾalkad-ir ʾalkad-aš ʾalkad-un
Allative singular ʾalkad-aj-i ʾalkad-aj-a ʾalkad-aj
Ablative singular ʾalkad-if-i ʾalkad-if-a ʾalkad-if
Nominative plural ʾalikd-il ʾalikd-an ʾalikd-ad
Genitive plural ʾalikd-ir-u ʾalikd-aš-u ʾalikd-un-u
Allative plural ʾalikd-ej-il ʾalikd-ej-an ʾalkd-ej-ad
Ablative plural ʾalikd-uf-il ʾalikad-uf-an ʾalikad-uf-ad
  • The Nominative case in Vrkhazhian marks the subject of a verb, while the Accusative case marks the object. The Accusative case is denoted with the prefix "tu-/ta-/ti-" agreeing in gender with the noun.
  • The Allative case in Vrkhazhian is used to denote movement towards the marked noun while the Ablative case is used to denote movement away from the marked noun.
  • The Genitive case is used to denote the possessor of an object such as "Mark" in the sentence "Mark's cat". Proper nouns such as people and places are not marked with a genitive suffix.
  • The Distributive case in Vrkhazhian is used to denote something occurring to each individual of a set, thus the noun can only be declined for singular number. The meaning of the distributive case is roughly translated as "each" or "per". The prefix "šar-" is used to denote the distributive.
Construct state

Nouns in Vrkhazhian can also be placed in the construct state (status constructus), which is used in genitive constructions to mark the head noun (possessed noun), while the Genitive case is used to mark the dependent (modifying) noun or adjective. Nouns that that are not placed in the construct state are considered to remain in the governed state (status rectus), which is the default state of all nouns. The table below shows the declensions of the noun ʾalkad placed in the construct state:

Noun paradigm
Noun (masc.) Noun (fem.) Noun (neut.)
Nominative singular ʾalkad-i ʾalkad-a ʾalkad-u
Genitive singular ʾalkad-iz ʾalkad-ag ʾalkad-ul
Allative singular ʾalkad-ač-i ʾalkad-ač-a ʾalkad-ač-u
Ablative singular ʾalkad-iv-i ʾalkad-iv-a ʾalkad-iv-u
Nominative plural ʾalikd-ib ʾalikd-at ʾalikd-um
Genitive plural ʾalikd-izi ʾalikd-agi ʾalikd-uli
Allative plural ʾalikd-eč-ib ʾalikd-eč-at ʾalikd-eč-um
Ablative plural ʾalikd-uv-ib ʾalikd-uv-at ʾalikd-uv-um

Nouns containing biliteral roots are phonetically reduced to stem ʾaCC- when they are placed in the construct state and can be inflected for case like above. An example of this is the noun kaf (water) which, when placed in the construct state, is reduced to ʾakf in the nominative neuter singular. However, if there is an invalid consonant cluster as a result, the suffix -u may be added such as for the noun šim (house), which becomes ʾašmu.

Adjectival morphology

Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender and number in agreement with the noun they modify. Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are placed into different stems depending on the type of adjective the root is. For example, only adjectival verbs pertaining to size and mass, such as d-b-n (to be heavy), are placed into the pattern CaCCa, while verbs pertaining to shapes, such as ḵ-l-k (to be round) are placed in the pattern toCCeC. The table below shows the declension of the roots ʾ-w-d (to be short), ḵ-l-k (to be round), z-w-l (to be red), h-r-d (to be pure), s-ǧ-l (to be old), and m-n-b (to be fair, beautiful) placed into their respective stems:

Adjective declension - Size/Mass
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular ʾud-i ʾud-a ʾud-u
Plural ʾud-il ʾud-an ʾud-um
Adjective declension - Shape
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular toḵlek-i toḵlek-a toḵlek
Plural toḵlak-il toḵlak-an toḵlak-um
Adjective declension - Colour
Adjective (neut.)
Singular ʾazaẇwil
Plural ʾazaẇl-um
Adjective declension - Condition
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular ʾihrod-i ʾihrod-a ʾihrod
Plural ʾihrod-il ʾihrod-an ʾihrod-um
Adjective declension - Age
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular saǧǧol-i saǧǧol-a saǧǧol
Plural suǧǧal-il suǧǧal-an suǧǧal-um
Adjective declension - Observation
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular ʾifmanb-i ʾifmanb-a ʾifmanab
Plural ʾifminb-il ʾifminb-an ʾifmineb

Adjectives can either precede or follow the noun depending on the type of adjective. Adjectives pertaining to physical features such as size, shape, colour and material always precede the noun, while adjectives pertaining to other features such as origin, condition, age and observation always follow the noun.

Definite marking

Vrkhazhian has an definite affix "ṛ-" that indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something already mentioned or uniquely specified. The affix is attached to the noun and the adjective(s) that modify the noun.

Verbal morphology

Verbs in Vrkhazhian are conjugated for number (singular and plural), tense (infinitive, past simple, past progressive, present simple, present progressive, and future) and voice (active and passive)

Verb patterns

The table below shows the conjugation of the root s-d-n (to oppress) and m-n-š (to write):

Verb Conjugations
Active Singular Active Plural Translation Passive Singular Passive Plural Translation
Infinitive ʾasdaẇwan to oppress ʾasdubin to be oppressed
Past Simple nisdan nisdanam oppressed nusden nusdenam was oppressed
Past Prog. yosdan yosdanam was oppressing yesden yesdenam was being oppressed
Present Simple sudan sudnam oppress saden sadnam is oppressed
Present Prog. husdan husdanam is oppressing hasden hasdenam is being oppressed
Future ʾasdan ʾasdanam will oppress ʾisden ʾisdenam will be oppressed
Verb Conjugations
Active Singular Active Plural Translation
Infinitive ʾamniziš to write to self
Past Simple nilmonaš nilmonšam wrote to self
Past Progressive yolmonaš yolmonšam was writing to self
Present Simple ləmnaš ləmnašam write to self
Present Progressive hulmonaš hulmonšam is writing to self
Future ʾilmonaš ʾilmonšam will write to self

The Genitive case mentioned above is also used to indicate the subject of a verb in a reflexive construction.

Verb moods

Vrkhazhian has five moods, jussive, potential, conditional, commissive and subjunctive. The particles "čar" and "yaj" can be used with moods to indicate the past and future tense respectively. The table below shows the conjugation of the root ṗ-m-t (to walk) in active voice, while the table shows the conjugation of the root b-ʾ-l (to punish, discipline) in passive voice.

Verb Mood
Active Singular Active Plural Translation Passive Singular Passive Plural Translation
Jussive jiṗmat jiṗmatam have to walk jubʾel jubʾelam have to be punished
Potential ʾibeṗmat ʾibeṗmatam can walk ʾababʾel ʾababʾelam can be punished
Conditional ʾamaṗmat ʾamaṗmatam would walk ʾimobʾel ʾimobʾelam would be punished
Commissive ḵuṗṭumat ḵuṗṭumtam shall walk ḵabtaʾel ḵabtaʾlam shall be punished
Subjunctive ṇtaṗmat ṇtaṗmatam may walk ṇtibʾel ṇtibʾelam may be punished

The jussive mood in Vrkhazhian is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no pronouns or nouns in the nominative case, it can also act like an imperative, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s).

Adverbial morphology

Adverbs in Vrkhazhian are marked for number in agreement with the verb they modify. Adverbs always follow the verb they modify. Adverbs are placed into the stem CeCuCat. An example of this is when the root ʾ-n-l (to be blind) is placed into the stem, it becomes "blindly".

Adverb declension
Singular Plural
Adverb ʾenulat ʾenultam

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:

Nominative Accusative Genitive Lative Ablative
Person Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st inclusive ẕaẏ "I" yeš "we" šadib ʾaẏyib šadiki ʾaẏyiki šadiš ʾaẏyiš šadit ʾaẏyat
exclusive ṉal "we" ṉalib ṉaliki ṉališ ṉalat
2nd masculine ʾiši "you" qar "you" ʾišib qarib ʾišaki qaraki ʾideš qareš ʾidat qarat
feminine ʾati "you" šun "you" ʾatib šunib ʾataki šunaki ʾateš šuneš ʾatat šunat
3rd masculine šul "he" baʾ "they" šujim baʾib šujaki baʾaki šuješ baʾeš šujat baʾat
feminine šaf "she" tav "they" šafib tavib šafaki tavaki šapeš tabeš šapat tabat
neuter ḥol "they" ṗal "they" ḥojim ṗajim ḥojaki ṗajaki ḥoješ ṗaješ ḥojat ṗajat
4th ʾaḥ "one" ʾaḥib ʾaḥaki ʾaqeš ʾaqat

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:

Deixis
Number Proximal Medial Distal
Singular ʾib "this" ʾani "that" maẏ "that"
Plural ʾivim "these" ʾanim "those" maẏm "those"

Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs

Listed below are the interrogative pronouns and adverbs in Vrkhazhian:

English Vrkhazhian
who? ʾalim
what? hamat
where? suhal
when? hna
why? ʾičam
how? ʾim hamat
which? ʾaqab

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:

Number Nominative Genitive Lative Ablative
Masculine singular ṇki saẕmi ṇkeši ?ṇkati
Masculine plural ṇkil saẕmil ṇkešil ṇkatil
Feminine singular ṇka saẕma ṇkeša ṇkata
Feminine plural ṇkan saẕman ṇkešan ṇkatan
Neuter singular ṇku saẕmu ṇkešu ṇkatu
Neuter plural ṇkad saẕmad ṇkešad ṇkatad

The Familiaritive

An important feature of Vrkhazhian is the Familiaritive, which is a form of grammatical formality that marks only whether the referent is familiar to the speaker, such as friends, family, or even enemies. The use of the Familiaritive is on an individual basis, and thus, there is no clear rule for determining "familiarity". The Familiaritive is marked on verbs and the prefixes "zi-" and "zu-" are used to denote the Familiaritive in active voice and passive voice, respectively. There is also a separate set of pronouns marked in the Familiaritive:

Nominative Accusative Genitive Lative Ablative
Person Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
2nd masculine ʾinu "you" liḵti "you" ʾinub liḵtib ʾinaki liḵtaki ʾineš liḵteš ʾinat liḵtat
feminine ʾema "you" pasfa "you" ʾemib pasfib ʾemaki pasfaki ʾemeš paspeš ʾemat paspat
3rd masculine niz "he" ǧoti "they" nizib ǧotib nizaki ǧotaki niḏeš ǧoteš niḏat ǧotat
feminine nab "she" ǧana "they" nabib ǧanib nabaki ǧanaki nabeš ǧaneš nabat ǧanat
neuter sem "they" meš "they" semib mešib semaki mešaki semeš mečeš semat mečat

Numerals

Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩. Cardinal numerals precede the nouns they modify and are placed in the construct state, while ordinal numerals are placed in the absolute state, losing all case endings; cardinal numerals also agree in gender with the noun they modify. An example of this are the nouns vakkami and ʾalkad (which becomes ʾalikdad in plural); when a numeral is placed before them they become ʾaẏni vakkami (one king) and apetu ʾalikdad (six soldiers). The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.

Numerals
Numbers Cardinal

(masc.)

Cardinal

(fem.)

Cardinal

(neut.)

Ordinal

(neut.)

1 ʾaẏni ʾaẏna ʾaẏnu ʾaẏyun
2 sasari sasara sasaru hassir
3 ṇzudi ṇzuda ṇzudu hanzid
4 ʾaẕafi ʾaẕafa ʾaẕafu haʾẕif
5 mareqi mareqa marequ hamriq
6 ʾapeti ʾapeta ʾapetu haʾpit
7 ʾarami ʾarama ʾaramu haʾrim
8 šalbi šalba šalbu hašlib
9 seferi sefera seferu hasfir
X (10) yegimi yegima yegimu haẏgim
E (11) ḵtili ḵtila ḵtilu haḵtil
10 (12) ʾinahi ʾinaha ʾinahu haʾina

Syntax

Nominal phrases

Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. Adjectives either follow or precede the noun depending on its semantic class (see adjective section above). An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ṛ-Vakkami Yat-Vṛḵaẕ, ʾIḥamek ʾAraš-Hijunu, meṭajad šujaki nimtaḥ "Arash-Hijunu Ihamek, the Emperor of Vrkhazh, united his people" which is analyzed in the following table:

Word Meaning Analysis Part of the nominal phrase
ṛ-Vakkami king/emperor masculine construct state Apposition
Yat-Vṛḵaẕ Vrkhazh unmarked neuter genitive
ʾIḥamek ʾAraš-Hijunu Arash-Hijunu Ihamek nominative unmarked masculine singular Proper Noun (subject)
meṭajad people accusative neuter plural Relative clause
šujaki his genitive singular pronoun
nimtaḥ unite active past singular

Sentence syntax

There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Object (VSO). Compare an active sentence:

ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalikdad ṛ-ʾildad ʾuldam.
ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalikdad ṛ-ʾildad ʾuldam
All DEF-soldier-NEUT-PL-NOM DEF-civilian-NEUT-PL-ACC ACT-PRES-guard-SG
"All of the soldiers guard the civilians."

vs. a passive sentence:

Nušṉemam ṛ-havir ṛ-mašṉamad ʾim Hiqal.
Nu-šṉem-am ṛ-havir ṛ-mašṉamad ʾim Hiqal
PASS-PST-build-PL DEF-mercury DEF-golem-NEUT-PL-NOM by Hiqal-ACC
"The mercury golems were built by Hiqal"

The verb root ʾ-l-d (to guard), in the first example, is conjugated for active past singular in the active sentence agreeing in number with the subject "soldiers", while the verb root š-ṉ-m (to build) in the second example is conjugated in the passive past plural, agreeing in number with the subject "the mercury golems".

Writing System

The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam [ʔaxuβa jat βɹ̩xaʝikam]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 33 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 6 vowel diacritics. The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.

History

The script has been in use for at least 820 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The script is a descendant of the Takshian logographic script.

Letter names

Standard letters

The table below lists the 30 letters that are considered part of the Akhuva:

ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Meaning Phoneme
ʾAlaḵ ʾAlaḵ wind ʾ [ʔ]
Ḵav Ḵav human ḵ [x]
Vav Vav cane v [β]
Hit Hit lock h [h]
Dat Dat skull d [d]
Ḏim Ḏim fruit, blood ḏ [t͡s]
Bal Bal path b [b]
Sum Sum tunnel s [s]
Ẕat Ẕat helmet ẕ [ʝ]
Yav Yav scythe y [j]
ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Meaning Phoneme
Kaf Kaf water k [k]
Gēb Geb wing g [g]
Lam Lam hand l [l]
Maʾ Maʾ bowl, cup m [m]
Neš Neš peace n [n]
Ǧaẏm Ǧaẏm name ǧ [ɣ]
Pak Pak head p [p]
Jim Jim pillar j [ɟ͡ʝ]
Ruḵ Ruḵ snake r [ɹ]
Faš Faš vulture f [ɸ]
ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Meaning Phoneme
Šim Šim house š [ç]
Waj Waj shield w [w]
Tal Tal gate t [t]
Čit Čit hook č [c͡ç]
Zab Zab branch z [z]
Ḻam Ḻam tree ḻ [ʎ̝̊]
Ḥak Ḥak roof ḥ [χ]
Qar Qar you q [q]
Řat Řat fear ř [rʷ]
Ṉod Ṉod ear ṉ [ɴ]

Vowel diacritics

The Akhuva is an abjad, thus vowels are not represented in most texts. However, vowel diacritics may be used to aid learners in reading the text and to reduce ambiguities.

Mambinad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Meaning Phoneme
Matlid Matlid exposing a [a]
Mamṉit Mamṉit flowing e [e̞]
Šipij Šipij ground i [i]
Ḵalok Ḵalok circle o [o̞]
ʾIfšaraj ʾIfšaraj hollow, empty ə [ə]
Muḥəl Muḥəl throne u [u]
Kburad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Numeral Name Phoneme
ʾUda Yav ʾUda Yav ẏ [e̯]
ʾUda Waj ʾUda Waj ẇ [o̯]

Numerals

Kiḏifad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Numeral Number Name
Šemt 0 Šemt ("none")
ʾAẏn 1 ʾAẏn
Sasar 2 Sasar
Ṇzud 3 Ṇzud
ʾAẕaf 4 ʾAẕaf
Mareq 5 Mareq
ʾApet 6 ʾApet
ʾAram 7 ʾAram
Šalb 8 Šalb
Sefer 9 Sefer
Yegim 10/X Yegim
Ḵtil 11/E Ḵtil

Other letters

Vrkhazhian uses a diacritic to represent the "dark" counterpart of letters in the Akhuva, and they are considered variations of the original letter:

ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Phoneme
Ṗak Ṗak ṗ [pʶ]
Ṭal Ṭal ṭ [tʶ]
Ṟat Ṟat ṟ [ʀ]

Vocabulary

Example text

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