ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaž: Difference between revisions

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Vrkhazhian (ʾŠDDW YT-VṚḴẔKM, ''ʾĪšaddū Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam'') is a Northern Hašakam language that is spoken in the region known as Vṛḵaẕ. The earliest form of this language, known as Old Vrkhazhian, was spoken around 10 000 years ago.
Vrkhazhian (ʾŠDDW YT-VṚḴẔKM, ''ʾIšaddū Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam'') is a Northern Hašakam language that is spoken in the region known as Vṛḵaẕ. The earliest form of this language, known as Old Vrkhazhian, was spoken around 10 000 years ago.
{{infobox
{{infobox
|image=Flag-Vrkhazh.png
|image=Flag-Vrkhazh.png
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|bg=#6BB6B6
|bg=#6BB6B6
|name=Vrkhazhian
|name=Vrkhazhian
|native=ʾĪšaddū Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|native=ʾIšaddū Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|pronounce=/ʔiçadːu jat βɹ̩xaʝikam/
|pronounce=/ʔiçadːu jat βɹ̩xaʝikam/
|in=Vrkhazh (Vṛḵaẕ)
|in=Vrkhazh (Vṛḵaẕ)
|script=ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|script=ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|tree=Proto-Haṣákaṃ Languages
|tree=Proto-Haṣákaṃ Languages
:Himoshian
:Himoshian
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|-
|-
!Close
!Close
| '''ī''' [i]
| '''i''' [i]
| '''i''' [ɨ]
|
| '''ū''' [u]
| '''u''' [u]
|-
|-
!Mid
!Mid
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Vrkhazhian has two numbers (singular and plural) and six cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, lative, ablative, and distributive).
Vrkhazhian has two numbers (singular and plural) and six cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, lative, ablative, and distributive).
The table below shows the noun ''vīkīm'' (ruler) declined in various cases.  
The table below shows the noun ''vikim'' (ruler) declined in various cases.  


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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  |-
  |-
  ! Nominative/Accusative singular
  ! Nominative/Accusative singular
  | ''vīkīm-ī'' || ''vīkīm-a'' || ''vīkīm''
  | ''vikim-i'' || ''vikim-a'' || ''vikim''
  |-
  |-
  ! Genitive singular
  ! Genitive singular
  | ''vīkīm-īr'' || ''vīkīm-aš'' || ''vīkīm-ūn''
  | ''vikim-ir'' || ''vikim-aš'' || ''vikim-un''
  |-
  |-
  ! Lative singular
  ! Lative singular
  | ''vīkīm-aj-ī'' || ''vīkīm-aj-a'' || ''vīkīm-aj''
  | ''vikim-aj-i'' || ''vikim-aj-a'' || ''vikim-aj''
  |-
  |-
  ! Ablative singular
  ! Ablative singular
  | ''vīkīm-īf-ī'' || ''vīkīm-īf-a'' || ''vīkīm-īf''
  | ''vikim-if-i'' || ''vikim-if-a'' || ''vikim-if''
  |-
  |-
  ! Nominative/Accusative plural
  ! Nominative/Accusative plural
  | ''vīkīm-īl'' || ''vīkīm-an'' || ''vīkīm-ad''
  | ''vikim-il'' || ''vikim-an'' || ''vikim-ad''
  |-
  |-
  ! Genitive plural
  ! Genitive plural
  | ''vīkīm-īr-ū'' || ''vīkīm-aš-ū'' || ''vīkīm-ūn-ū''
  | ''vikim-ir-u'' || ''vikim-aš-u'' || ''vikim-un-u''
  |-
  |-
  ! Lative plural
  ! Lative plural
  | ''vīkīm-ēj-īl'' || ''vīkīm-ēj-an'' || ''vīkīm-ēj-ad''
  | ''vikim-ēj-il'' || ''vikim-ēj-an'' || ''vikim-ēj-ad''
  |-
  |-
  ! Ablative plural
  ! Ablative plural
  | ''vīkīm-ūf-īl'' || ''vīkīm-ūf-an'' || ''vīkīm-ūf-ad''
  | ''vikim-uf-il'' || ''vikim-uf-an'' || ''vikim-uf-ad''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Singular
  ! Singular
  | ''ʾalkad-ī'' || ''ʾalkad-a'' || ''ʾalkad-ū''
  | ''ʾalkad-i'' || ''ʾalkad-a'' || ''ʾalkad-u''
  |-
  |-
  ! Plural
  ! Plural
  | ''ʾalīkd-īt'' || ''ʾalīkd-at'' || ''ʾalīkd-ūm''
  | ''ʾalikd-it'' || ''ʾalikd-at'' || ''ʾalikd-um''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}


Nouns containing biliteral roots are placed into the construct state patterns CVraC for singular number and CarC2VC2 for plural number. An example of this is the noun ''šīm'' (house) which, when placed into the construct state, becomes ''šīram'' for singular number and ''šarmīm'' for plural number.
Nouns containing biliteral roots are placed into the construct state patterns CVraC for singular number and CarC2VC2 for plural number. An example of this is the noun ''šim'' (house) which, when placed into the construct state, becomes ''širam'' for singular number and ''šarmim'' for plural number.
Nouns containing biliteral roots that are placed in the construct state are also declined for gender in the nominative case.
Nouns containing biliteral roots that are placed in the construct state are also declined for gender in the nominative case.


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  |-
  |-
  ! Singular
  ! Singular
  | ''ʾūd-ī'' || ''ʾūd-a'' || ''ʾaẇd-a''
  | ''ʾud-i'' || ''ʾud-a'' || ''ʾaẇd-a''
  |-
  |-
  ! Plural
  ! Plural
  | ''ʾaẇd-īl'' || ''ʾaẇd-an'' || ''ʾūd-ūm''
  | ''ʾaẇd-il'' || ''ʾaẇd-an'' || ''ʾud-um''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Singular
  ! Singular
  | ''toḵlek-ī'' || ''toḵlek-a'' || ''toḵlek''
  | ''toḵlek-i'' || ''toḵlek-a'' || ''toḵlek''
  |-
  |-
  ! Plural
  ! Plural
  | ''toḵlak-īl'' || ''toḵlak-an'' || ''toḵlak-ūm''
  | ''toḵlak-il'' || ''toḵlak-an'' || ''toḵlak-um''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Singular
  ! Singular
  | ''ʾazaẇwīl''
  | ''ʾazaẇwil''
  |-
  |-
  ! Plural
  ! Plural
  | ''ʾazaẇl-ūm''
  | ''ʾazaẇl-um''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Singular
  ! Singular
  | ''ʾīhrōd-ī'' || ''ʾīhrōd-a'' || ''ʾīhrōd''
  | ''ʾihrōd-i'' || ''ʾihrōd-a'' || ''ʾihrōd''
  |-
  |-
  ! Plural
  ! Plural
  | ''ʾīhrōd-īl'' || ''ʾīhrōd-an'' || ''ʾīhrōd-ūm''
  | ''ʾihrōd-il'' || ''ʾihrōd-an'' || ''ʾihrōd-um''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Singular
  ! Singular
  | ''saǧǧol-ī'' || ''saǧǧol-a'' || ''saǧǧol''
  | ''saǧǧol-i'' || ''saǧǧol-a'' || ''saǧǧol''
  |-
  |-
  ! Plural
  ! Plural
  | ''sūǧǧal-īl'' || ''sūǧǧal-an'' || ''sūǧǧal-ūm''
  | ''sūǧǧal-il'' || ''sūǧǧal-an'' || ''sūǧǧal-um''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Singular
  ! Singular
  | ''ʾīfmanb-ī'' || ''ʾīfmanb-a'' || ''ʾīfmanab''
  | ''ʾifmanb-i'' || ''ʾifmanb-a'' || ''ʾifmanab''
  |-
  |-
  ! Plural
  ! Plural
  | ''ʾīfmīnb-īl'' || ''ʾīfmīnb-an'' || ''ʾīfmīneb''
  | ''ʾifminb-il'' || ''ʾifminb-an'' || ''ʾifmineb''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Infinitive
  ! Infinitive
  | colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾadnīyaj'' || to crush || colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾadnūbīj'' || to be crushed
  | colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾadnaẏyaj'' || to crush || colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾadnubij'' || to be crushed
  |-
  |-
  ! Past Simple
  ! Past Simple
  | ''nōdnoj'' || ''nadnūjam'' || crushed || ''nūdnūj'' || ''nīdnajam'' || was crushed
  | ''nōdnoj'' || ''nadnujam'' || crushed || ''nudnuj'' || ''nidnajam'' || was crushed
  |-
  |-
  ! Past Progressive
  ! Past Progressive
  | ''yūdnoj'' || ''yūdnējam'' || was crushing || ''yīdnaj'' || ''yīdnūjam'' || was being crushed
  | ''yudnoj'' || ''yudnējam'' || was crushing || ''yidnaj'' || ''yidnujam'' || was being crushed
  |-
  |-
  ! Present Simple
  ! Present Simple
  | ''dūnaj'' || ''dūnjam'' || crush || ''danēj'' || ''danjam'' || is crushed
  | ''dunaj'' || ''dunjam'' || crush || ''danēj'' || ''danjam'' || is crushed
  |-
  |-
  ! Present Progressive
  ! Present Progressive
  | ''hūdnaj'' || ''hūdnījam'' || is crushing || ''hadnēj'' || ''hadnojam'' || is being crushed  
  | ''hudnaj'' || ''hudnijam'' || is crushing || ''hadnēj'' || ''hadnojam'' || is being crushed  
  |-
  |-
  ! Future
  ! Future
  | ''ʾadnej'' || ''ʾadnejam'' || will crush || ''ʾīdnīj'' || ''ʾīdnījam'' || will be crushed
  | ''ʾadnej'' || ''ʾadnejam'' || will crush || ''ʾidnij'' || ''ʾidnijam'' || will be crushed
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Infinitive
  ! Infinitive
  | colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾamnazīš'' || to write to self
  | colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾamnaziš'' || to write to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Past Simple
  ! Past Simple
  | ''nōlmonīš'' || ''nalmūnšam'' || wrote to self
  | ''nōlmoniš'' || ''nalmunšam'' || wrote to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Past Progressive
  ! Past Progressive
  | ''yūlmonīš'' || ''yūlmēnšam'' || was writing to self
  | ''yulmoniš'' || ''yulmēnšam'' || was writing to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Present Simple
  ! Present Simple
  | ''lūmnaš'' || ''lūmnašam'' || write to self
  | ''lumnaš'' || ''lumnašam'' || write to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Present Progressive
  ! Present Progressive
  | ''halmūnaš'' || ''halmūnšam'' || is writing to self
  | ''halmunaš'' || ''halmunšam'' || is writing to self
  |-
  |-
  ! Future
  ! Future
  | ''ʾīlmaneš'' || ''ʾīlmanšam'' || will write to self
  | ''ʾilmaneš'' || ''ʾilmanšam'' || will write to self
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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  |-
  |-
  ! Jussive
  ! Jussive
  | ''jīṗmat'' || ''jīṗmetam'' || have to walk || ''jūbhīl'' || ''jūbhūlam'' || have to be punished
  | ''jiṗmat'' || ''jiṗmetam'' || have to walk || ''jubhil'' || ''jubhulam'' || have to be punished
  |-
  |-
  ! Potential
  ! Potential
  | ''ʾībēṗmat'' || ''ʾībēṗmētam'' || can walk || ''ʾībībhūl'' || ''ʾībībhōlam'' || can be punished
  | ''ʾibēṗmat'' || ''ʾibēṗmētam'' || can walk || ''ʾibibhūl'' || ''ʾibibhōlam'' || can be punished
  |-
  |-
  ! Conditional
  ! Conditional
  | ''ʾīmaṗmat'' || ''ʾīmaṗmūtam'' || would walk || ''ʾīmobhīl'' || ''ʾīmobhīlam'' || would be punished
  | ''ʾimaṗmat'' || ''ʾimaṗmūtam'' || would walk || ''ʾimobhil'' || ''ʾimobhilam'' || would be punished
  |-
  |-
  ! Commissive
  ! Commissive
  | ''ḵūṗtamīt'' || ''ḵūṗtamtam'' || shall walk || ''ḵabtehūl'' || ''ḵabtehlam'' || shall be punished  
  | ''ḵuṗtamit'' || ''ḵuṗtamtam'' || shall walk || ''ḵabtehul'' || ''ḵabtehlam'' || shall be punished  
  |-
  |-
  ! Subjunctive
  ! Subjunctive
  | ''ṇtaṗmīt'' || ''ṇtaṗmītam'' || may walk || ''ṇtībhūl'' || ''ṇtībhūlam'' || may be punished
  | ''ṇtaṗmit'' || ''ṇtaṗmitam'' || may walk || ''ṇtibhul'' || ''ṇtibhulam'' || may be punished
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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====Adverbial morphology====  
====Adverbial morphology====  
Adverbs in Vrkhazhian are marked for number in agreement with the verb they modify. Adverbs always follow the verb they modify. Adverbs are placed into the stem ʾeCCaCū. An example of this is when the root '''ʾ-n-l''' (to be blind) is placed into the stem, it becomes "blindly".
Adverbs in Vrkhazhian are marked for number in agreement with the verb they modify. Adverbs always follow the verb they modify. Adverbs are placed into the stem ʾeCCaCu. An example of this is when the root '''ʾ-n-l''' (to be blind) is placed into the stem, it becomes "blindly".


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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  |-
  |-
  ! Adverb
  ! Adverb
  | ''ʾeʾlanū'' || ''ʾeʾlanyam''
  | ''ʾeʾlanu'' || ''ʾeʾlanyam''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
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! rowspan=2|1st
! rowspan=2|1st
!<small>inclusive</small>
!<small>inclusive</small>
| rowspan=2|ẕaẏ "I" || yeš "we" || rowspan=2|šadīb || ʾaẏyīb || rowspan=2|šadīkī || ʾaẏyīkī || rowspan=2|šadīš || ʾaẏyīš || rowspan=2|šadīt || ʾaẏyat
| rowspan=2|ẕaẏ "I" || yeš "we" || rowspan=2|šadib || ʾaẏyib || rowspan=2|šadiki || ʾaẏyiki || rowspan=2|šadiš || ʾaẏyiš || rowspan=2|šadit || ʾaẏyat
|-
|-
!<small>exclusive</small>
!<small>exclusive</small>
| ṉal "we" || ṉalīb || ṉalīkī || ṉalīš || ṉalat
| ṉal "we" || ṉalib || ṉaliki || ṉališ || ṉalat
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
!  rowspan=2|2nd
!<small>masculine</small>
!<small>masculine</small>
|  ʾīšī "you" ||  qar "you" || ʾīšīb || qarīb || ʾīšakī || qarakī || ʾīdeš || qareš || ʾīdat || qarat
|  ʾiši "you" ||  qar "you" || ʾišib || qarib || ʾišaki || qaraki || ʾideš || qareš || ʾidat || qarat
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
!<small>feminine</small>
| ʾatī "you" || šūn "you" || ʾatīb || šūnīb || ʾatakī || šūnakī || ʾateš || šūneš || ʾatat || šūnat
| ʾati "you" || šun "you" || ʾatib || šunib || ʾataki || šunaki || ʾateš || šuneš || ʾatat || šunat
|-
|-
! rowspan=3|3rd
! rowspan=3|3rd
!<small>masculine</small>
!<small>masculine</small>
| haf "he" || baʾ "they" || hafīb || baʾīb || hafakī || baʾakī || hapeš || baʾeš || hapat || baʾat
| šuf "he" || baʾ "they" || šufib || baʾib || šufaki || baʾaki || šupeš || baʾeš || šupat || baʾat
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
!<small>feminine</small>
| šaf "she" || tav "they" || šafīb || tavīb || šafakī || tavakī || šapeš || tabeš || šapat || tabat
| šaf "she" || tav "they" || šafib || tavib || šafaki || tavaki || šapeš || tabeš || šapat || tabat
|-
|-
!<small>neuter</small>
!<small>neuter</small>
| ḥol "they" || ṗal "they" || ḥajīm || ṗajīm || ḥajakī || ṗajakī || ḥaješ || ṗaješ || ḥajat || ṗajat
| ḥol "they" || ṗal "they" || ḥajim || ṗajim || ḥajaki || ṗajaki || ḥaješ || ṗaješ || ḥajat || ṗajat
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 634: Line 634:
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
|-
|-
|'''Singular''' || ''ʾīšar'' "this"||''ʾanī'' "that" || ''maẏ'' "that"  
|'''Singular''' || ''ʾišar'' "this"||''ʾani'' "that" || ''maẏ'' "that"  
|-
|-
|'''Plural''' || ''ʾīšrūhīt'' "these"||''ʾanīhīt'' "those" || ''maẏyīt'' "those"  
|'''Plural''' || ''ʾišarit'' "these"||''ʾanihit'' "those" || ''maẏyit'' "those"  
|}
|}


Line 645: Line 645:
! Vrkhazhian
! Vrkhazhian
|-
|-
| who? || ''ʾalīm''
| who? || ''ʾalim''
|-
|-
| what? || ''hamat''
| what? || ''hamat''
|-
|-
| where? || ''sūhal''
| where? || ''suhal''
|-
|-
| when? || ''hna''
| when? || ''hna''
|-
|-
| why? || ''ʾīčam''
| why? || ''ʾičam''
|-
|-
| how? || ''taja''
| how? || ''taja''
Line 663: Line 663:
===Numerals===
===Numerals===
Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as "X", and the number eleven as "E".
Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as "X", and the number eleven as "E".
Cardinal numerals precede the nouns they modify and are placed in the construct state, while ordinal numerals are placed in the absolute state, losing all case endings; cardinal numerals also agree in gender with the noun they modify. An example of this are the nouns ''vīkīm'' and ''ʾalkad'' (which becomes ''ʾalīkdad'' in plural); when a numeral is placed before them they become ''ʾaẏnī vīkīmī'' (one king) and ''apetū ʾalīkdad'' (six soldiers). Both of these words would literally translate to ''"one-of king"'' and ''"six-of soldiers"'', respectively.
Cardinal numerals precede the nouns they modify and are placed in the construct state, while ordinal numerals are placed in the absolute state, losing all case endings; cardinal numerals also agree in gender with the noun they modify. An example of this are the nouns ''vikim'' and ''ʾalkad'' (which becomes ''ʾalikdad'' in plural); when a numeral is placed before them they become ''ʾaẏni vikīmi'' (one king) and ''apetu ʾalikdad'' (six soldiers). The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.     
The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.     


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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  |-
  |-
  ! 1
  ! 1
  | ''ʾaẏnī'' || ''ʾaẏna'' || ''ʾaẏnū'' || ''ʾeʾyan''
  | ''ʾaẏni'' || ''ʾaẏna'' || ''ʾaẏnu'' || ''ʾeʾyan''
  |-
  |-
  ! 2
  ! 2
  | ''nīmī'' || ''nīma'' || ''nīmū'' || ''nūmmēš''
  | ''nimi'' || ''nima'' || ''nimu'' || ''nummaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! 3
  ! 3
  | ''dajī'' || ''daja'' || ''dajū'' || ''dūjjēš''
  | ''daji'' || ''daja'' || ''daju'' || ''dujjaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! 4
  ! 4
  | ''hatī'' || ''hata'' || ''hatū'' || ''hūttēš''
  | ''hati'' || ''hata'' || ''hatu'' || ''huttaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! 5
  ! 5
  | ''ʾaẕafī'' || ''ʾaẕafa'' || ''ʾaẕafū'' || ''ʾūẕfēš''
  | ''ʾaẕafi'' || ''ʾaẕafa'' || ''ʾaẕafu'' || ''ʾuẕfaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! 6
  ! 6
  | ''ʾapetī'' || ''ʾapeta'' || ''ʾapetū'' || ''ʾūptēš''
  | ''ʾapeti'' || ''ʾapeta'' || ''ʾapetu'' || ''ʾuptaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! 7
  ! 7
  | ''ʾaramī'' || ''ʾarama'' || ''ʾaramū'' || ''ʾūrmēš''
  | ''ʾarami'' || ''ʾarama'' || ''ʾaramu'' || ''ʾurmaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! 8
  ! 8
  | ''šabbī'' || ''šabba'' || ''šabbū'' || ''šūbbēš''
  | ''šabi'' || ''šaba'' || ''šabu'' || ''šubaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! 9
  ! 9
  | ''ʾadīkī'' || ''ʾadīka'' || ''ʾadīkū'' || ''ʾūdkēš''
  | ''ʾadiki'' || ''ʾadika'' || ''ʾadiku'' || ''ʾudkaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! X (10)
  ! X (10)
  | ''yamī'' || ''yama'' || ''yamū'' || ''yūmmēš''
  | ''yami'' || ''yama'' || ''yamu'' || ''yummaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! E (11)
  ! E (11)
  | ''ʾījītī'' || ''ʾījīta'' || ''ʾījītū'' || ''ʾūjtēš''
  | ''ʾijiti'' || ''ʾijita'' || ''ʾijitu'' || ''ʾujtaš''
  |-
  |-
  ! 10 (12)
  ! 10 (12)
  | ''ʾīlaẏkī'' || ''ʾīlaẏka'' || ''ʾīlaẏkū'' || ''taʾlīk''
  | ''ʾilaẏki'' || ''ʾilaẏka'' || ''ʾilaẏku'' || ''taʾlik''
  |-
  |-
  |}
  |}
Line 718: Line 717:
===Syntax===
===Syntax===
====Nominal phrases====
====Nominal phrases====
Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. Adjectives either follow or precede the noun depending on its semantic class (see adjective section above). An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ''ṛ-Vīkīmī ṛ-hījūnū, ʾAšahījar, ṛ-sentīstenū ʾAkrīdēhas nōšṉom'' 'Ashahijar, the king of the gods, built the realm of Akrideas' which is analyzed in the following table:
Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. Adjectives either follow or precede the noun depending on its semantic class (see adjective section above). An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ''ṛ-Vikimi ṛ-hijunu, ʾAšahijar, ṛ-sentistenu ʾAkridēhas nōšṉom'' 'Ashahijar, the king of the gods, built the realm of Akrideas' which is analyzed in the following table:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 727: Line 726:
!Part of the nominal phrase
!Part of the nominal phrase
|-
|-
| ''ṛ-Vīkīmī'' || king || masculine construct state || rowspan='2' valign='middle' | Apposition
| ''ṛ-Vikimi'' || king || masculine construct state || rowspan='2' valign='middle' | Apposition
|-
|-
| ''ṛ-hījūnū'' || gods || neuter genitive plural
| ''ṛ-hijunu'' || gods || neuter genitive plural
|-
|-
| ''ʾAšahījar'' || Ashahijar || nominative || Proper Noun (subject)
| ''ʾAšahijar'' || Ashahijar || nominative || Proper Noun (subject)
|-
|-
| ''ṛ-sentīstenū'' || world || neuter construct state || rowspan='3' valign='middle' | Relative clause
| ''ṛ-sentistenu'' || world || neuter construct state || rowspan='3' valign='middle' | Relative clause
|-
|-
| ''ʾAkrīdēhas'' || Akrideas || genitive singular
| ''ʾAkridēhas'' || Akrideas || genitive singular
|-
|-
| ''nōšṉom'' || built|| active past singular
| ''nōšṉom'' || built|| active past singular
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There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Object (VSO). Compare an active sentence:
There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Object (VSO). Compare an active sentence:


:'''ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalīkdad ṛ-ʾīʾlūdrad ʾūldam.'''
:'''ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalikdad ṛ-ʾiʾludrad ʾuldam.'''
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| Align="center" | ''ʾAšol'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-ʾalīkdad'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-ʾīʾlūdrad'' || Align="center" | ''ʾūldam''
| Align="center" | ''ʾAšol'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-ʾalikdad'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-ʾiʾludrad'' || Align="center" | ''ʾuldam''
|-
|-
| All || Align="center" | DEF-soldier-PL || Align="center" | DEF-golem-PL-ACC || Align="center" | ACT-PST-build-SG  
| All || Align="center" | DEF-soldier-PL-NOM || Align="center" | DEF-civilian-PL-ACC || Align="center" | ACT-PRES-guard-SG  
|}  
|}  
:"The soldiers guard the civilians."
:"All of the soldiers guard the civilians."


vs. a passive sentence:
vs. a passive sentence:


:'''Nīšṉamam ṛ-havīr ṛ-mašarad ʾīm Hīqal.'''
:'''Nišṉamam ṛ-havir ṛ-mašarad ʾim Hiqal.'''
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| Align="center" | ''Nī-šṉam-am'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-havīr'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-mašarad'' || Align="center" | ''ʾīm'' || Align="center" | ''Hīqal''
| Align="center" | ''Ni-šṉam-am'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-havir'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-mašarad'' || Align="center" | ''ʾim'' || Align="center" | ''Hiqal''
|-
|-
| PASS-PST-build-PL || Align="center" | DEF-mercury || Align="center" | DEF-golem-PL-NOM || Align="center" | by || Align="center" | Hiqal-ACC
| PASS-PST-build-PL || Align="center" | DEF-mercury || Align="center" | DEF-golem-PL-NOM || Align="center" | by || Align="center" | Hiqal-ACC
Line 767: Line 766:


==Writing System==
==Writing System==
The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam [ʔaxu'βa jat-βɹ̩xaʑikam]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 37 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 10 vowel diacritics.
The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam [ʔaxu'βa jat-βɹ̩xaʝikam]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 37 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 10 vowel diacritics.
The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.
The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.


Line 779: Line 778:
|  
|  
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|+ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="110px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
! Letter !! Name !! width="110px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
Line 789: Line 788:
| [[File:Vav2.PNG|30px|Vav]] || Vav || cane || '''v''' [β]
| [[File:Vav2.PNG|30px|Vav]] || Vav || cane || '''v''' [β]
|-
|-
| [[File:Hith.PNG|30px|Hīt]] || Hīt || lock || '''h''' [h]
| [[File:Hith.PNG|30px|Hit]] || Hit || lock || '''h''' [h]
|-
|-
| [[File:Dat.PNG|30px|Dat]] || Dat || skull || '''d''' [d]
| [[File:Dat.PNG|30px|Dat]] || Dat || skull || '''d''' [d]
|-
|-
| [[File:Tsim.PNG|30px|Ḏīm]] || Ḏīm || fruit, blood || '''ḏ''' [t͡s]
| [[File:Tsim.PNG|30px|Ḏim]] || Ḏim || fruit, blood || '''ḏ''' [t͡s]
|-
|-
| [[File:Bal.PNG|30px|Bal]] || Bal || path || '''b''' [b]
| [[File:Bal.PNG|30px|Bal]] || Bal || path || '''b''' [b]
|-
|-
| [[File:Sum.PNG|30px|Sūm]] || Sūm || tunnel || '''s''' [s]
| [[File:Sum.PNG|30px|Sum]] || Sum || tunnel || '''s''' [s]
|-
|-
| [[File:Zhat.PNG|30px|Ẕat]] || Ẕat || helmet, child || '''ẕ''' [ʑ~ʝ]
| [[File:Zhat.PNG|30px|Ẕat]] || Ẕat || helmet || '''ẕ''' [ʑ~ʝ]
|-
|-
| [[File:Yav.PNG|30px|Yav]] || Yav || scythe || '''y''' [j]
| [[File:Yav.PNG|30px|Yav]] || Yav || scythe || '''y''' [j]
Line 805: Line 804:
|
|
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|+ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
|-
|-
| [[File:Kah.PNG|30px|Ka]] || Ka || water || '''k''' [k]
| [[File:Kah.PNG|30px|Kaf]] || Kaf || water || '''k''' [k]
|-
|-
| [[File:Ge.PNG|30px|Gē]] || Gē || wing || '''g''' [g]
| [[File:Ge.PNG|30px|Gēb]] || Gēb || wing || '''g''' [g]
|-
|-
| [[File:Lam.PNG|30px|Lam]] || Lam || hand || '''l''' [l]
| [[File:Lam.PNG|30px|Lam]] || Lam || hand || '''l''' [l]
Line 823: Line 822:
| [[File:Pak.PNG|30px|Pak]] || Pak || head || '''p''' [p]
| [[File:Pak.PNG|30px|Pak]] || Pak || head || '''p''' [p]
|-
|-
| [[File:Jim.PNG|30px|Jīm]] || Jīm || pillar || '''j''' [d͡ʑ~ɟ͡ʝ]
| [[File:Jim.PNG|30px|Jim]] || Jim || pillar || '''j''' [d͡ʑ~ɟ͡ʝ]
|-
|-
| [[File:Ru.PNG|30px|Rū]] || Rū || snake || '''r''' [ɹ~ɾ]
| [[File:Ru.PNG|30px|Ruḵ]] || Ruḵ || snake || '''r''' [ɹ~ɾ]
|-
|-
| [[File:Fash.PNG|30px|Faš]] || Faš || vulture || '''f''' [ɸ]
| [[File:Fash.PNG|30px|Faš]] || Faš || vulture || '''f''' [ɸ]
Line 831: Line 830:
|
|
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|+ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
|-
|-
| [[File:Shim.PNG|30px|Šīm]] || Šīm || house || '''š''' [ɕ~ç]
| [[File:Shim.PNG|30px|Šim]] || Šim || house || '''š''' [ɕ~ç]
|-
|-
| [[File:Waj.PNG|30px|Waj]] || Waj || shield || '''w''' [w]
| [[File:Waj.PNG|30px|Waj]] || Waj || shield || '''w''' [w]
Line 841: Line 840:
| [[File:Tal.PNG|30px|Tal]] || Tal || gate || '''t''' [t]
| [[File:Tal.PNG|30px|Tal]] || Tal || gate || '''t''' [t]
|-
|-
| [[File:Chi.PNG|30px|Čī]] || Čī || hook || '''č''' [t͡ɕ~c͡ç]
| [[File:Chi.PNG|30px|Čit]] || Čit || hook || '''č''' [t͡ɕ~c͡ç]
|-
|-
| [[File:Zab.PNG|30px|Zab]] || Zab || branch || '''z''' [z]
| [[File:Zab.PNG|30px|Zab]] || Zab || branch || '''z''' [z]
Line 860: Line 859:
====Vowel diacritics====
====Vowel diacritics====
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Mambīnad Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|+Mambinad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|-
|-
! Letter
! Letter
Line 867: Line 866:
! Phoneme
! Phoneme
|-
|-
| [[File:Ah.PNG|30px|Dalaʾīd]]
| [[File:Ah.PNG|30px|Dalaʾid]]
| Dalaʾīd
| Dalaʾid
| exposing
| exposing
| '''a''' [a]
| '''a''' [a]


|-
|-
| [[File:Eh.PNG|30px|Šarūd]]
| [[File:Eh.PNG|30px|Šarud]]
| Šarūd
| Šarud
| moon
| moon
| '''e''' [ɛ]
| '''e''' [ɛ]


|-
|-
| [[File:Ee.PNG|30px|Maṉaʾīt]]
| [[File:Ee.PNG|30px|Maṉaʾit]]
| Maṉaʾīt
| Maṉaʾit
| flowing
| flowing
| '''ē''' [e̞]
| '''ē''' [e̞]


|-
| [[File:Ih.PNG|30px|Šafaʾīd]]
| Šafaʾīd
| guiding
| '''i''' [ɨ]


|-
|-
| [[File:Ii.PNG|30px|Šīpīj]]
| [[File:Ii.PNG|30px|Šipij]]
| Šīpīj
| Šipij
| ground
| ground
| '''ī''' [i]
| '''i''' [i]


|-
|-
| [[File:Oh.PNG|30px|Ḵamaʾīt]]
| [[File:Oh.PNG|30px|Ḵamaʾit]]
| Ḵamaʾīt
| Ḵamaʾit
| crawling
| crawling
| '''o''' [ɔ]
| '''o''' [ɔ]
Line 912: Line 906:
| Šarja
| Šarja
| hollow, empty
| hollow, empty
| '''u/ə''' [ə]
| '''ə''' [ə]


|-
|-
| [[File:Uu.PNG|30px|Mūḥlek]]
| [[File:Uu.PNG|30px|Muḥel]]
| Mūḥel
| Muḥel
| throne
| throne
| '''ū''' [u]
| '''u''' [u]


|}
|}


{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Kbūrad Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|+Kburad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|-
|-
! Numeral
! Numeral
Line 942: Line 936:
====Numerals====
====Numerals====
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Kīʾfarad Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|+Kiʾfarad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|-
|-
! Numeral
! Numeral
Line 958: Line 952:


|-
|-
| [[File:Nim.PNG|30px|Nīm]]
| [[File:Nim.PNG|30px|Nim]]
| 2
| 2
| Nīm
| Nim


|-
|-
Line 993: Line 987:


|-
|-
| [[File:Adik.PNG|30px|ʾAdīk]]
| [[File:Adik.PNG|30px|ʾAdik]]
| 9
| 9
| ʾAdīk
| ʾAdik


|-
|-
Line 1,003: Line 997:


|-
|-
| [[File:Ijith.PNG|30px|ʾĪjīt]]
| [[File:Ijith.PNG|30px|ʾijit]]
| 11/E
| 11/E
| ʾĪjīt
| ʾijit


|}
|}
Line 1,012: Line 1,006:
The table below lists the letters that are not considered part of the Akhuva, but are considered to be variation of the letters in the Akhuva:
The table below lists the letters that are not considered part of the Akhuva, but are considered to be variation of the letters in the Akhuva:
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵūva Yat-Vṛḵaẕīkam
|+ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|-
|-
! Letter
! Letter

Revision as of 17:53, 20 September 2014

Vrkhazhian (ʾŠDDW YT-VṚḴẔKM, ʾIšaddū Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam) is a Northern Hašakam language that is spoken in the region known as Vṛḵaẕ. The earliest form of this language, known as Old Vrkhazhian, was spoken around 10 000 years ago.



Flag-Vrkhazh.png
Vrkhazhian
ʾIšaddū Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Pronounced: /ʔiçadːu jat βɹ̩xaʝikam/
Spoken: Vrkhazh (Vṛḵaẕ)
Writing system: ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Genealogy: Proto-Haṣákaṃ Languages
Himoshian
Highalic
Proto-Vrkhazhian
Old Vrkhazhian
Middle Vrkhazhian
Modern Vrkhazhian
Typology
Morphological type: highly fusional, weakly agglutinative
Morphosyntactic alignment: nominative-accusative
Basic word order: SOV/VSO
Credits
Creator: Malcolm G. Holborne


History

Dialects

Vrkhazhian has two major dialects and several minor dialects. The area of the two dialects are divided by two distinct sides; the north-eastern portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Shamashetic, while the south-western portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Khadachian. The numerous smaller dialects are spread in and around these two halves with varying degrees of density.

The table below lists the two major dialects:

Dialects of Vrkhazhian
Dialect Location
Khadachian South-West Vrkhazh (origination from the city of Tam-Ḵadač)
Shamashetic North-West Vrkhazh (originating from the city of Tam-Šamašet)

Due to the widespread use of Khadachian and its increasing popularity among traders and the educated, it is recognized as the standard dialect for writing and communication. All children in Vrkhazh are expected to learn Khadachian throughout their education.

Phonology

Consonants

The table below shows the 42 consonant phonemes found in Vrkhazhian. When consonants appear in pairs, the voiceless counterpart appears on the left, and the voiced counterpart appears on the right:

Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal Light hm [ʰm~m̥] hn [ʰn~n̥]
Plain m [m] n [n] ṉ [ɴ]
Stop Light hp [ʰp] ht [ʰt] hk [ʰk] hq [ʰq]
Plain p [p] b [b] t [t] d [d] k [k] g [g] q [q] ʾ [ʔ]
Dark ṗ [pʶ~pˤ] ṭ [tʶ~tˤ]
Affricate ḏ [t͡s] č [t͡ɕ~c͡ç] j [d͡ʑ~ɟ͡ʝ]
Fricative f [ɸ] v [β] s [s] z [z] š [ɕ~ç] ẕ [ʑ~ʝ] ḵ [x] ğ [ɣ] ḥ [χ~ħ] h [h]
Approximant Light hr [ʰɹ~ʰɾ~ɹ̥]
Plain r [ɹ~ɾ] y [j] w [w]
Trill rr [r] ṟ [ʀ]
Lateral Approximant Light hl [ʰl~l̥]
Plain l [l]
Dark ḷ [lʶ~lˤ]
Lateral Fricative ḻ [ɬ~ɬʲ]

Vowels

Vrkhazhian Vowel Phonemes
Front Central Back
Close i [i] u [u]
Mid ē [e̞] ə [ə] ō [o̞]
Open-mid e [ɛ] o [ɔ]
Open a [a]
Vrkhazhian Diphthongs
IPA Letter Example
ae̯ aẏ like eye
ao̯ aẇ like cow

Allophony

In Vrkhazhian, the stop consonants /t d/ become [θ ð] if they occur before rhotics /r ɹ ɾ/ and in word-final positions if they occur after front vowels /ɛ e i/. The stop consonants /t d/ also become retroflexed [ʈ ɖ] if they occur before a labial approximant /w/. Stop-glottal stop clusters are respectively analyzed as ejectives and implosives word-initially and intervocalically. The consonant /h/ becomes [ħ] when it is geminated.

Syllable Structure

The syllable structure of Vrkhazhian is analyzed as (C)C(V)(C)(C), where C stands for a consonant, V stands for a vowel. CV and CVC are most common syllable types in Vrkhazhian, while in contrast, C and CCVCC, are the rarest. Though not listed in the phonemic inventory table above, there also exists a syllabic rhotic /ɹ̩/ in Vrkhazhian that is written as <ṛ> as well as two syllabic nasals /m̩ n̩/ written as <ṃ ṇ>.

All words that appear to begin with vowels are analyzed as containing a glottal stop before them, which is usually omitted in fast speech. Vrkhazhian is very strict in preventing hiatus between vowels; this is done by adding an epenthetic /h/ between the two vowels. The only one exception is an epenthetic /a/ placed between uvular and uvularized consonants and a front vowel.

Onset

The follow table lists the possible consonants that can occur as the onset:

Nasal:
/m/, /ʰm/, /n/, /ʰn/, /ɴ/
Stop:
/p/, /ʰp/, /pʶ/, /b/, /t/, /ʰt/, /tʶ/, /d/,
/k/, /ʰk/, /g/, /q/, /ʰq/, /ʔ/
Stop plus Stop:
/pt/, /pd/, /pʔ/, /bt/, /bd/, /tp/, /tʔ/, /db/,
/kp/, /kb/, /kt/, /kd/, /kʔ/, /gp/, /gb/, /gt/,
/gd/, /gʔ/
Stop plus /w/:
/kw/, /gw/, /qw/
Stop plus Liquid:
/pɹ~pɾ/, /bɹ~bɾ/, /tɹ~tɾ/, /dɹ~dɾ/, /kɹ~kɾ/,
/gɹ~gɾ/, /qɹ~qɾ/, /pr/, /br/, /tr/, /dr/, /kr/,
/gr/, /qr/, /pʀ/, /bʀ/, /tʀ/, /dʀ/, /kʀ/, /gʀ/,
/qʀ/, /pl/, /bl/, /ql/
Affricate:
/t͡s/, /t͡ɕ/, /d͡ʑ/
Fricative:
/ɸ/, /β/, /s/, /z/, /ç/, /ʝ/, /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, h/
Fricative plus Stop:
/xp/, /xt/, /ɣb/, /ɣd/
Fricative plus Affricate:
/çc͡ç/, /ʝɟ͡ʝ/
Fricative plus /w/:
/sw/, /zw/, /çw/, /ʝw/, /xw/, /ɣw/, /χw/
Fricative plus Liquid:
/sɹ~sɾ/, /zɹ~zɾ/, /çɹ~çɾ/, /ʝɹ~ʝɾ/, /xɹ~xɾ/, /ɣɹ~ɣɾ/,
/χɹ~χɾ/, /ɸr/, /βr/, /çr/, /ʝr/, /xr/, /ɣr/, /χr/,
/sʀ/, /zʀ/, /çʀ/, /ʝʀ/, /xʀ/, /ɣʀ/, /χʀ/, /sl/,
/zl/, /çl/, /ʝl/, /xl/, /ɣl/, /χl/
Approximant:
/j/, /w/
Liquid:
/ɹ~ɾ/, /ʰɹ~ʰɾ/, /r/, /ʀ/, /l/, /ʰl/, /lʶ/, /ɬ~ɬʲ/

Nucleus

Any of the vowels and diphthongs can appear in a syllable as well as the syllabic consonants /m̩ n̩ ɹ̩/, provided the latter have no onset or coda.

Coda

The following table lists the possible consonants that can occur as the coda:

Nasal:
/m/, /ʰm/, /n/, /ʰn/, /ɴ/
Nasal plus Stop:
/mt/, /nt/
Stop:
/p/, /ʰp/, /pʶ/, /b/, /t/, /ʰt/, /tʶ/, /d/,
/k/, /ʰk/, /g/, /q/, /ʰq/, /ʔ/
Stop plus Stop:
/pt/, /kt/
Stop plus Liquid:
/ɹp~ɾp/, /ɹb~ɾb/, /ɹt~ɾt/, /ɹd~ɾd/,
/ɹk~ɾk/, /ɹg~ɾg/, /ɹq~ɾq/, /rp/, /rb/, /tr/,
/rd/, /rk/, /rg/, /rq/, /ʀp/, /ʀb/, /ʀt/,
/ʀd/, /ʀk/, /ʀg/, /ʀq/, /lp/, /lb/, /lt/,
/ld/, /lk/, /lg/ /lq/
Affricate:
/t͡s/, /c͡ç/, /ɟ͡ʝ/
Fricative:
/ɸ/, /β/, /s/, /z/, /ç/, /ʝ/, /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, h/
Fricative plus Stop:
/çt/, /ʝd/, /xp/, /xt/, /xk/, /ɣb/, /ɣd/, /ɣg/
Fricative plus Affricate:
/çc͡ç/, /ʝɟ͡ʝ/
Fricative plus Liquid:
/ɹɸ~ɾɸ/, /ɹβ~ɾβ/, /ɹs~ɾs/, /ɹz~ɾz/, /ɹç~ɾç/,
/ɹʝ~ɾʝ/, /ɹx~ɾx/, /ɹɣ~ɾɣ/, /ɹχ~ɾχ/, /rɸ/, /rβ/,
/rç/, /rʝ/, /rx/, /rɣ/, /rχ/, /ʀs/, /ʀz/, /ʀç/,
/ʀʝ/, /ʀx/, /ʀɣ/, /ʀχ/, /ls/, /lz/, /lç/,
/lʝ/, /lx/, /lɣ/, /lχ/
Approximant:
/j/, /w/
Liquid:
/ɹ~ɾ/, /ʰɹ~ʰɾ/, /r/, /ʀ/, /l/, /ʰl/, /lʶ/, /ɬ~ɬʲ/

Stress

Stress in Vrkhazhian is generally placed on the last or second-to-last syllable.

Grammar

Morphology

Overview

Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting triconsonantal root language. Most roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two letter (biliteral) roots. Vrkhazhian also recognizes four- and five-letter roots, however, these are uncommon. Between and around these roots various infixes, suffixes, and prefixes are used to carry grammatical functions or derived words.

Roots containing the consonants <y>/j/ and <w>/w/ are considered weak roots, and exhibit irregular verb forms.

Nominal morphology

Vrkhazhian has three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. These genders are strictly semantic, thus most nouns, such as inanimate objects, fall into the category of neuter.

Vrkhazhian has two numbers (singular and plural) and six cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, lative, ablative, and distributive). The table below shows the noun vikim (ruler) declined in various cases.

Noun paradigm
Noun (masc.) Noun (fem.) Noun (neut.)
Nominative/Accusative singular vikim-i vikim-a vikim
Genitive singular vikim-ir vikim-aš vikim-un
Lative singular vikim-aj-i vikim-aj-a vikim-aj
Ablative singular vikim-if-i vikim-if-a vikim-if
Nominative/Accusative plural vikim-il vikim-an vikim-ad
Genitive plural vikim-ir-u vikim-aš-u vikim-un-u
Lative plural vikim-ēj-il vikim-ēj-an vikim-ēj-ad
Ablative plural vikim-uf-il vikim-uf-an vikim-uf-ad

The distributive case in Vrkhazhian is used to denote something occurring to each individual of a set, thus the noun can only be declined for singular number. The meaning of the distributive case is roughly translated as "each" or "per". The prefix "šar-" is used to denote the distributive.

Construct state

Most nouns in Vrkhazhian can also be placed in the construct state, which is used for genitive constructions and denotes that the noun is the possessed object. Using the noun ʾalkad (soldier, guard), the declensions of the construct state are shown below:

Noun paradigm
Noun (masc.) Noun (fem.) Noun (neut.)
Singular ʾalkad-i ʾalkad-a ʾalkad-u
Plural ʾalikd-it ʾalikd-at ʾalikd-um

Nouns containing biliteral roots are placed into the construct state patterns CVraC for singular number and CarC2VC2 for plural number. An example of this is the noun šim (house) which, when placed into the construct state, becomes širam for singular number and šarmim for plural number. Nouns containing biliteral roots that are placed in the construct state are also declined for gender in the nominative case.

Adjectival morphology

Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender and number in agreement with the noun they modify. Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are placed into different stems depending on the type of adjective the root is. For example, only adjectival verbs pertaining to size and mass, such as d-b-n (to be heavy), are placed into the pattern CaCCa, while verbs pertaining to shapes, such as ḵ-l-k (to be round) are placed in the pattern toCCeC. The table below shows the declension of the root ʾ-w-d (to be short) as well as a few other roots placed into their respective stems:

Adjective declension - Size/Mass
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular ʾud-i ʾud-a ʾaẇd-a
Plural ʾaẇd-il ʾaẇd-an ʾud-um
Adjective declension - Shape
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular toḵlek-i toḵlek-a toḵlek
Plural toḵlak-il toḵlak-an toḵlak-um
Adjective declension - Colour
Adjective (neut.)
Singular ʾazaẇwil
Plural ʾazaẇl-um
Adjective declension - Condition
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular ʾihrōd-i ʾihrōd-a ʾihrōd
Plural ʾihrōd-il ʾihrōd-an ʾihrōd-um
Adjective declension - Age
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular saǧǧol-i saǧǧol-a saǧǧol
Plural sūǧǧal-il sūǧǧal-an sūǧǧal-um
Adjective declension - Observation
Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Adjective (neut.)
Singular ʾifmanb-i ʾifmanb-a ʾifmanab
Plural ʾifminb-il ʾifminb-an ʾifmineb

Adjectives can either precede or follow the noun depending on the type of adjective. Adjectives pertaining to physical features such as size, shape, colour and material always precede the noun, while adjectives pertaining to other features such as origin, condition, age and observation always follow the noun.

Definite marking

Vrkhazhian has an definite affix "ṛ-" that indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something already mentioned or uniquely specified. The affix is attached to the noun and the adjective(s) that modify the noun.

Verbal morphology

Verbs in Vrkhazhian are conjugated for number (singular and plural), tense (infinitive, past simple, past progressive, present simple, present progressive, and future) and voice (active and passive)

Verb patterns

The table below shows the conjugation of the root d-n-j (to crush) and m-n-š (to write):

Verb Conjugations
Active Singular Active Plural Translation Passive Singular Passive Plural Translation
Infinitive ʾadnaẏyaj to crush ʾadnubij to be crushed
Past Simple nōdnoj nadnujam crushed nudnuj nidnajam was crushed
Past Progressive yudnoj yudnējam was crushing yidnaj yidnujam was being crushed
Present Simple dunaj dunjam crush danēj danjam is crushed
Present Progressive hudnaj hudnijam is crushing hadnēj hadnojam is being crushed
Future ʾadnej ʾadnejam will crush ʾidnij ʾidnijam will be crushed
Verb Conjugations
Active Singular Active Plural Translation
Infinitive ʾamnaziš to write to self
Past Simple nōlmoniš nalmunšam wrote to self
Past Progressive yulmoniš yulmēnšam was writing to self
Present Simple lumnaš lumnašam write to self
Present Progressive halmunaš halmunšam is writing to self
Future ʾilmaneš ʾilmanšam will write to self
Verb moods

Vrkhazhian has five moods, jussive, potential, conditional, commissive and subjunctive. The particles "čar" and "yaj" can be used with moods to indicate the past and future tense respectively. The table below shows the conjugation of the root ṗ-m-t (to walk) in active voice, while the table shows the conjugation of the root b-h-l (to punish, discipline) in passive voice.

Verb Mood
Active Singular Active Plural Translation Passive Singular Passive Plural Translation
Jussive jiṗmat jiṗmetam have to walk jubhil jubhulam have to be punished
Potential ʾibēṗmat ʾibēṗmētam can walk ʾibibhūl ʾibibhōlam can be punished
Conditional ʾimaṗmat ʾimaṗmūtam would walk ʾimobhil ʾimobhilam would be punished
Commissive ḵuṗtamit ḵuṗtamtam shall walk ḵabtehul ḵabtehlam shall be punished
Subjunctive ṇtaṗmit ṇtaṗmitam may walk ṇtibhul ṇtibhulam may be punished

The jussive mood in Vrkhazhian is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no pronouns or nouns in the nominative case, it can also act like an imperative, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s). While a verb in the jussive mood can be used in this way, the particle "ʾīs" is more common.

Adverbial morphology

Adverbs in Vrkhazhian are marked for number in agreement with the verb they modify. Adverbs always follow the verb they modify. Adverbs are placed into the stem ʾeCCaCu. An example of this is when the root ʾ-n-l (to be blind) is placed into the stem, it becomes "blindly".

Adverb declension
Singular Plural
Adverb ʾeʾlanu ʾeʾlanyam

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:

Nominative Accusative Genitive Lative Ablative
Person Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st inclusive ẕaẏ "I" yeš "we" šadib ʾaẏyib šadiki ʾaẏyiki šadiš ʾaẏyiš šadit ʾaẏyat
exclusive ṉal "we" ṉalib ṉaliki ṉališ ṉalat
2nd masculine ʾiši "you" qar "you" ʾišib qarib ʾišaki qaraki ʾideš qareš ʾidat qarat
feminine ʾati "you" šun "you" ʾatib šunib ʾataki šunaki ʾateš šuneš ʾatat šunat
3rd masculine šuf "he" baʾ "they" šufib baʾib šufaki baʾaki šupeš baʾeš šupat baʾat
feminine šaf "she" tav "they" šafib tavib šafaki tavaki šapeš tabeš šapat tabat
neuter ḥol "they" ṗal "they" ḥajim ṗajim ḥajaki ṗajaki ḥaješ ṗaješ ḥajat ṗajat

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:

Deixis
Number Proximal Medial Distal
Singular ʾišar "this" ʾani "that" maẏ "that"
Plural ʾišarit "these" ʾanihit "those" maẏyit "those"

Interrogative Pronouns

Listed below are the interrogative pronouns in Vrkhazhian:

English Vrkhazhian
who? ʾalim
what? hamat
where? suhal
when? hna
why? ʾičam
how? taja
which? ʾaqab

Numerals

Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as "X", and the number eleven as "E". Cardinal numerals precede the nouns they modify and are placed in the construct state, while ordinal numerals are placed in the absolute state, losing all case endings; cardinal numerals also agree in gender with the noun they modify. An example of this are the nouns vikim and ʾalkad (which becomes ʾalikdad in plural); when a numeral is placed before them they become ʾaẏni vikīmi (one king) and apetu ʾalikdad (six soldiers). The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.

Numerals
Numbers Cardinal

(masc.)

Cardinal

(fem.)

Cardinal

(neut.)

Ordinal

(neut.)

1 ʾaẏni ʾaẏna ʾaẏnu ʾeʾyan
2 nimi nima nimu nummaš
3 daji daja daju dujjaš
4 hati hata hatu huttaš
5 ʾaẕafi ʾaẕafa ʾaẕafu ʾuẕfaš
6 ʾapeti ʾapeta ʾapetu ʾuptaš
7 ʾarami ʾarama ʾaramu ʾurmaš
8 šabi šaba šabu šubaš
9 ʾadiki ʾadika ʾadiku ʾudkaš
X (10) yami yama yamu yummaš
E (11) ʾijiti ʾijita ʾijitu ʾujtaš
10 (12) ʾilaẏki ʾilaẏka ʾilaẏku taʾlik

Syntax

Nominal phrases

Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. Adjectives either follow or precede the noun depending on its semantic class (see adjective section above). An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ṛ-Vikimi ṛ-hijunu, ʾAšahijar, ṛ-sentistenu ʾAkridēhas nōšṉom 'Ashahijar, the king of the gods, built the realm of Akrideas' which is analyzed in the following table:

Word Meaning Analysis Part of the nominal phrase
ṛ-Vikimi king masculine construct state Apposition
ṛ-hijunu gods neuter genitive plural
ʾAšahijar Ashahijar nominative Proper Noun (subject)
ṛ-sentistenu world neuter construct state Relative clause
ʾAkridēhas Akrideas genitive singular
nōšṉom built active past singular

Sentence syntax

There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Object (VSO). Compare an active sentence:

ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalikdad ṛ-ʾiʾludrad ʾuldam.
ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalikdad ṛ-ʾiʾludrad ʾuldam
All DEF-soldier-PL-NOM DEF-civilian-PL-ACC ACT-PRES-guard-SG
"All of the soldiers guard the civilians."

vs. a passive sentence:

Nišṉamam ṛ-havir ṛ-mašarad ʾim Hiqal.
Ni-šṉam-am ṛ-havir ṛ-mašarad ʾim Hiqal
PASS-PST-build-PL DEF-mercury DEF-golem-PL-NOM by Hiqal-ACC
"The mercury golems were built by Hiqal"

The verb root š-ṉ-m (to build), in the first example, is conjugated for active past singular in the active sentence agreeing in number with the subject "Hiqal", while appearing in the second example in the passive past plural, agreeing in number with the subject "the mercury golems".

Writing System

The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam [ʔaxu'βa jat-βɹ̩xaʝikam]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 37 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 10 vowel diacritics. The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.

History

The script has been around for at least 7,500 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The true origins of the writing system are unknown, however, the glyphs are based partially off of the logographic script of a sister language known as Husroth Qhadithcha, while the numeral glyphs are of entirely Vrkhazhian origin.

Letter names

Standard letters

The table below lists the 30 letters that are considered part of the Akhuva:

ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Meaning Phoneme
ʾAlaḵ ʾAlaḵ wind ʾ [ʔ]
Ḵav Ḵav human ḵ [x]
Vav Vav cane v [β]
Hit Hit lock h [h]
Dat Dat skull d [d]
Ḏim Ḏim fruit, blood ḏ [t͡s]
Bal Bal path b [b]
Sum Sum tunnel s [s]
Ẕat Ẕat helmet ẕ [ʑ~ʝ]
Yav Yav scythe y [j]
ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Meaning Phoneme
Kaf Kaf water k [k]
Gēb Gēb wing g [g]
Lam Lam hand l [l]
Maʾ Maʾ bowl, cup m [m]
Neš Neš peace n [n]
Ǧaẏm Ǧaẏm name ǧ [ɣ]
Pak Pak head p [p]
Jim Jim pillar j [d͡ʑ~ɟ͡ʝ]
Ruḵ Ruḵ snake r [ɹ~ɾ]
Faš Faš vulture f [ɸ]
ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Meaning Phoneme
Šim Šim house š [ɕ~ç]
Waj Waj shield w [w]
Tal Tal gate t [t]
Čit Čit hook č [t͡ɕ~c͡ç]
Zab Zab branch z [z]
Ḻam Ḻam tree ḻ [ɬ~ɬʲ]
Ḫak Ḫak roof ḥ [χ~ħ]
Qar Qar you q [q]
Ṟat Ṟat fear ṟ [ʀ]
Ṉod Ṉod ear ṉ [ɴ]

The Akhuva is an abjad, thus vowels are not represented in most texts. However, vowels may be used to aid learners in reading the text and to reduce ambiguities.

Vowel diacritics

Mambinad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Meaning Phoneme
Dalaʾid Dalaʾid exposing a [a]
Šarud Šarud moon e [ɛ]
Maṉaʾit Maṉaʾit flowing ē [e̞]


Šipij Šipij ground i [i]
Ḵamaʾit Ḵamaʾit crawling o [ɔ]
Ḵalōk Ḵalōk circle ō [o̞]
Šarja Šarja hollow, empty ə [ə]
Muḥel Muḥel throne u [u]
Kburad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Numeral Name Phoneme
ʾAẇda Yav ʾAẇda Yav ẏ [e̯]
ʾAẇda Waj ʾAẇda Waj ẇ [o̯]

Numerals

Kiʾfarad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Numeral Number Name
Šemt 0 Šemt ("none")
ʾAẏn 1 ʾAẏn
Nim 2 Nim
Daj 3 Daj
Hat 4 Hat
ʾAẕaf 5 ʾAẕaf
ʾApet 6 ʾApet
ʾAram 7 ʾAram
Šab 8 Šab
ʾAdik 9 ʾAdik
Yam 10/X Yam
ʾijit 11/E ʾijit

Other letters

The table below lists the letters that are not considered part of the Akhuva, but are considered to be variation of the letters in the Akhuva:

ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
Letter Name Phoneme
Ṗak Ṗak ṗ [pʶ~pˤ]
Ṭal Ṭal ṭ [tʶ~tˤ]
Ḷam Ḷam ḷ [lʶ~lˤ]

Vocabulary

Example text

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