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::''3PL eat-FUT-NEG''
::''3PL eat-FUT-NEG''
:::They will not eat.
:::They will not eat.
*The volitive mood is indicated by the suffix '''-ue''' (from '''ueha''' - to want, desire), it is affixed in all tenses.
:'''kam inaue'''
::''3PL eat-VOL''
:::They want to eat.
:'''kam inaueye'''
::''3PL eat-VOL-PAST''
:::They wanted to eat.
:'''kam inauetlik'''
::''3PL eat-VOL-FUT-NEG''
:::They will not want to eat.
*The necessitative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-he''' (from '''heta''' - to need, require), it is affixed in all tenses.
:'''kam inahe'''
::''3PL eat-NEC''
:::They need to eat.
:'''kam inaheye'''
::''3PL eat-NEC-PAST''
:::They needed to eat.
:'''kam inahetlik'''
::''3PL eat-NEC-FUT-NEG''
:::They will not need to eat.
*The abilitative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-pa''' (from '''pala''' - to be able), it is affixed in all tenses.
:'''kam inapa'''
::''3PL eat-ABIL''
:::They can eat. / They are able to eat.
:'''kam inapaye'''
::''3PL eat-ABIL-PAST''
:::They were able to eat.
:'''kam inapatlik'''
::''3PL eat-ABIL-FUT-NEG''
:::They will not be able to eat.


=== nouns ===
=== nouns ===

Revision as of 15:33, 11 July 2010

  • Kala is meant to be a simple and euphonic personal conlang.
  • Many lexical entries are inspired/influenced/borrowed by/from any number of natlangs

Phonology

consonants

  • Plosives
p - [p~b] | t - [t~d] | k - [k~g] | ' - [?]
  • Nasals
m - [m] | n - [n] | ny - [J]
  • Fricatives
s - [s~S] | h - [h~h\]
  • Africates
ts - [ts~tS] | tl - [tK]
  • Approximants
u - [w] | l - [l] | y - [j]

vowels

  • a - /a~a:/ | e - /e~e:/ | i - /i~i:/ | o - /o~o:/ | u - /u~u:/

diphthongs

  • ya - /ja:/ | ye - /je:/ | yo - /jo:/ | ua - /wa:/ | ue - /we:/

phonotactics

  • Kala allows only a single consonant at the start or end of a syllable, and up to two consonants word medially across a syllable boundary.
l cannot appear as an onset, the glottal stop, ' , only appears between vowels.

syllable structure

  • (C)V(k, m, n)

syllable stress

  • Kala stress is penultimate; that is, the next-to-last syllable of the word is stressed.

Grammar

word order

  • The usual, declarative formal word order is subject noun phrase - (object noun phrase) - verb phrase.
Example : He/She is preparing food.
ha ina yaso
3sg food/eat prepare/ready
  • The "indirect object" exists only in the form of a prepositional phrase, and follows the object noun phrase.
Example : The woman gives the house to me.
naka ke tsaka ka'e na yeta
woman the/a house to/at 1sg give
  • This construction changes when both the subject (agent) and (indirect)/object (patient) are personal pronouns. In this case, the preposition/al (phrase) is unnecessary.
Example : She gives the house to me.
ha'ena ke tsaka yeta
3sg-TR-part-1sg the/a house give
  • A chart of the agent-patient transitivity constructions;
A-P construction
1st sing 2nd sing 3rd sing 1st plu 2nd plu 3rd plu
1st sing - na'eta na'eha - na'etam na'ekam
2nd sing ta'ena - ta'eha ta'enam - ta'ekam
3rd sing ha'ena ha'eta - ha'enam ha'etam ha'ekam
1st plu - nameta nameha - nametam namekam
2nd plu tamena - tameha tamenam - tamekam
3rd plu kamena kameta kameha kamenam kametam -

verbs

tense

  • The present tense is indicated by the basic form.
ha apua
3SG sing
He/She sings.
  • The simple past tense is indicated by the suffix -ye.
ha apuaye
3SG sing-PAST
He/She sang.
  • The simple future tense is indicated by the suffix -tli.
ha apuatli
3SG sing-FUT
He/She will sing.
  • The tense may be left out if it is clearly indicated by another word in the same sentence, or when telling a story (the "historical" tense).
ha yomatli apua
3SG day-FUT sing
He/She will sing tomorrow.
ha semaye apua
3SG week-PAST sing
He/She sang last week.

mood

  • The negative mood is indicated by the suffix -k, it is affixed in all tenses.
kam inak
3PL eat-NEG
They are not eating. / They do not eat.
kam inayek
3PL eat-PAST-NEG
They did not eat.
kam inatlik
3PL eat-FUT-NEG
They will not eat.


  • The volitive mood is indicated by the suffix -ue (from ueha - to want, desire), it is affixed in all tenses.
kam inaue
3PL eat-VOL
They want to eat.
kam inaueye
3PL eat-VOL-PAST
They wanted to eat.
kam inauetlik
3PL eat-VOL-FUT-NEG
They will not want to eat.
  • The necessitative mood is indicated by the suffix -he (from heta - to need, require), it is affixed in all tenses.
kam inahe
3PL eat-NEC
They need to eat.
kam inaheye
3PL eat-NEC-PAST
They needed to eat.
kam inahetlik
3PL eat-NEC-FUT-NEG
They will not need to eat.
  • The abilitative mood is indicated by the suffix -pa (from pala - to be able), it is affixed in all tenses.
kam inapa
3PL eat-ABIL
They can eat. / They are able to eat.
kam inapaye
3PL eat-ABIL-PAST
They were able to eat.
kam inapatlik
3PL eat-ABIL-FUT-NEG
They will not be able to eat.

nouns

degree

  • The diminutive is formed with -hi, and the augmentative with -ha.
Example : ina - food, meal | inahi - snack, morsel | inaha - feast, banquet
Example : tsaka - house, home, dwelling | tsakahi - shack, hut, cabin | tsakaha - palace, mansion
  • These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
Example : yanahi - light yellow, kuyaha - dark green

plurals

  • To make a noun plural, add -m to the end, or -im for words ending in a consonant.
Example : kono - stone | konom - stones
  • Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
Example : sahi - color, sahim - colors, sahi ya'o - five color(s)
  • Adjectives do not change when they are plural. However, when an adjective is used in place of a noun, it can be pluralized.
Example : nyeli - pink | nyelim - (the) pink (ones)

gender

  • In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings -ta and -na.
Example : nikata "a male dog", nikana "a female dog".

articles

  • There is only one article in Kala, ke. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
  • It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
Example : kama "village", ke kama "the/a village", ke kamam "the villages"
Example : inahi "snack", ke inahi "the/a snack", ke inahim "the snacks"

questions

  • When asking questions in Kala, the idea, or concept, is the subject, and the entire construction is followed by the interrogative particle ka.
  • ama...ka - when, lit: time...INT
  • ko...ka - who, lit: person [Agentive]...INT
  • koyo...ka - whose, lit: person-POSS...INT
  • nye...ka - why, lit: reason...INT
  • (ke) no...ka - what, lit: thing [Instrument]...INT
  • mo...ka - where, lit: place...INT
  • to...ka - how, what manner, lit: manner/method...INT
  • ko'o...ka - how much/many, lit: number/amount...INT

examples

  • ama nam yalatli ka
time 1PL go-FUT INT
When will we go?
  • ko ke tlaka ka
person the/that man INT
Who is that man?
  • nye kam hina ka
reason 3PL here INT
Why are they here?
  • (ke) no a ka
thing be INT
What is this?
  • koyo kama ke yama hina ka
person-POSS village the mountain near INT
Whose village is near the mountain?
  • mo satila nayo ka
place sandwich 1SG-POSS INT
Where is my sandwich?
  • to nam yalatli ka
manner 1PL travel-FUT INT
How will we travel?
  • ko'o ekam yetaye ka
number/amount TR-3PL give-PAST INT
How many were they given?

pronouns

Nominative Accusative Possessive Reflexive Reciprocal
1st sing na ena nayo na'i
2nd sing ta eta tayo ta'i
3rd sing ha eha hayo ha'i
1st plu nam enam namyo nami nanku
1st plu (EXCL) na'am ena'am na'amyo na'ami na'anku
2nd plu tam etam tamyo tami tanku
3rd plu kam ekam kamyo kami kanku

examples

  • ina namyo
food 1PL-POSS
Our food.
  • kami itsa
3PL-REFL love
They love themselves.
  • tanku moto ka
2PL-RECP remember/familiar INT
Do you remember each other?
  • eha unyatlik
ACC-3SG understand-FUT-NEG
He/She will not be understood.

Article 1, UDHR

Index

grammar outline | sentences | questions | lexicon | thematic lexicon | writing
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