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{{Infobox|name='Ukana'akau
{{Infobox|name='Ukana'akau
|pronounce=/?ukana?akau/
|pronounce=/?ukana?akau/
|tu=[[Alternate Earth]], modern era
|tu=nonspecific
|species=Human
|species=Human
|in=[[K'uanu]]
|in=nonspecific
|no=9 million
|no=unknown
|script=Own
|script=Own
|tree=K'uanu<br>
|tree=None
&nbsp;Islandic<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;Asio-Eastern<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Uka'u-Eastern<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''[['Ukana'akau]]'''
|morph=Isolating
|morph=Isolating
|ms=Nominative-Accusative
|ms=Accusative-Dative
|wo=VSO
|wo=(T)VAP
|creator=[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]
|creator=[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]
|date=February 2005}}
|date=February 2006<br>revised March 2008}}


http://img73.imageshack.us/img73/6061/uanuflag8nt.png
'Ukana'akau was created by [[User:Sectori|Sectori]] on the [http://www.spinoff.com/zbb ZBB] as part of Neek's Minimal Phonology Challenge in February 2006. It was revised in March 2008. Relevant linguistic information: the speakers of 'Ukana'akau are called the 'Akau. 'Ukana'akau is topic-marking, almost completely isolating, and accusative-dative (see below for more information).


The K'uanu flag has four stars, representing the four islands that make up the nation.
==Phonology==
'Ukana'akau has a fairly simple phonology.


'Ukana'akau was created by [[User:Sectori|Sectori]] on the [http://www.spinoff.com/zbb ZBB] as part of Neek's Minimal Phonology Challenge. It has developed a combination of semi-syllabic block writing and noun- and verb-ideograms.
===Phoneme Inventory===
The nine phonemes of the challenge were <tt>/p t k s n ? a i u/</tt>, romanized as <nowiki><p t k s n ' a i u></nowiki>. Additionally, there is a fourth "grammatical vowel", transcribed <v>, which is covered in more detail in the section on nominal morphology.


'Ukana'akau is spoken in K'uanu, a group of four mid-sized islands in the Indian Ocean. In recent years, there have been a number of anti-government protests, and the government was recently overthrown. A new constitution is in the works, but until it is complete the nation is in a sort of organized anarchy. Nonetheless, 'Ukana'akau is still working as normal, though slightly more cheerfully, in the meantime.
===Syllables===
'Ukana'akau's original syllable structure was (C)(')V (with <nowiki>''</nowiki> not permitted), but C' clusters have since been reanalyzed as glottalized consonants <tt>/p_? t_? k_? s_? n_?/</tt>, leaving the structure (C)V.


==Phonology/Orthography==
===Allophony===
'Ukana'akau has exactly nine phonemes.
Vowel clusters, which technically constitute multiple syllables, are generally realized as diphthongs or triphthongs.


*Vowels: <tt>/a i u/ </tt>
===Stress===
*Romanized Vowel Orthography: <a i u>
Stress falls regularly on the penultimate syllable. Monosyllabic words are usually stressed. However, particles, such as '''iki''' and '''tv''' are never stressed.
*Consonants: <tt>/p t k s n ?/ </tt>
*Romanized Consonant Orthography: < p t k s n '>


'Ukana'akau's syllable structure is (C)(/?/)V. Any consonant can combine with /?/, except another /?/.
==Nominal Morphology==
A note at the beginning: any time the word "noun" appears in this section, it can be freely replaced with "pronoun," which is to say they are treated the same. A variety of preposed particles are used with nouns.


==Syntax and Stress==
* '''kv''' is the topic-marking particle
'Ukana'akau is a VSO language. Such things as interrogatives and negatives are indicated by particles preceding the verb. Noun case is indicated by preceding particles.
* '''tv''' is the object-marking particle
* '''pv''' is the location/motion-marking particle
* '''sv''' is the vocative particle
* ''''v''' is the generic plural-marking particle


'Ukana'akau places primary stress on the penultimate syllable before a glottal stop or the end of a word. and secondary stress on the penultimate syllable of a word. So, 'Ukana'akau is /?uk"ana?ak%au/.
When a plural needs to be marked on any particle other than ''''v''', the initial consonant becomes glottalized, i.e. '''k'v''', '''t'v''', '''p'v''', '''s'v'''.


==Nominal Morphology: Case and Number==
===Topic===
Nouns in 'Ukana'akau are classed, approximately, by final vowel. This, the stem vowel, determines the vowel of the case particle. Nouns in 'Ukana'akau have various particles placed before them to indicate one of four cases: nominative, accusative, dative/locative, and vocative. These particles consist of a consonant±glottal stop and then the stem vowel of the noun. As there are no specific articles in 'Ukana'akau, these particles may translate as any article, or lack thereof.
The topic-marking particle defaults to being placed before the subject/agent of the sentence, i.e.


*The nominative singular particle is '''k-'''. The nominative case indicates the subject of a sentence.
{|
*The nominative plural particle is '''k'-'''.
! k'aki || ''k'a'' || ta'aka || tu || nu'au
*The accusative singular particle is '''n-'''. The accusative case indicates the direct object of a sentence.
|-
*The accusative plural particle is '''n'-'''.
| create  || TOP.PL  || god || OBJ.SG || world
*The dative/locative singular particle is '''s-'''. The dative/locative case indicates the object of a preposition, including the indirect object of a sentence.
|-
*The dative/locative plural particle is '''s'-'''.
| the || gods || create || the || world
*The vocative singular particle is '''p-'''. The vocative indicates formal address, like '''O K'uanu...'''.
|}
*The vocative plural particle is '''p'-'''.


==Personal Pronouns==
where '''k'a''' marks '''ta'aka''' ''gods'' as the topic/agent. If further emphasis is desired, or if another nominal or pronominal constituent is be topic marked, the topic is fronted and an anaphoric particle is left in its place (the marker for the fronted constituent), for example
'Ukana'akau has three personal pronouns, representing respectively the first person, second person, and third person.


*'''Ka'i''': first person
{|
*'''Ti'u''': second person
! ku || nu'au || k'aki || ('a) || ta'aka || ''tu''
*'''Pu'a''': third person
|-
| TOP.SG || world || create || (PL) || god || OBJ.SG
|-
| the || world, || the || gods || create || it
|}


*'''Kinu ki ka'i nu 'Ukana'akau.''' ''I speak 'Ukana'akau.''
The topic can also act as an introductory phrase, i.e. ''as for the world, the gods created it''. The anaphoric pronoun is the particle that was in the original sentence.
*'''U kinu ku ti'u!''' ''Speak!''
 
*''''I kinu k'a pu'a 'ui si ka'i.''' ''They spoke to me.''
===Object===
The object-marking particle marks the direct object/patient by default, and is used in several compound expressions, e.g. '''tua tv''' (marks the recipient or beneficiary). When an object has already been stated, rather than restate it or use a third person pronoun, the object particle is used as an anaphoric device. For example,
 
{|
! 'i || t'asa || ku || ti'u || ''ta'' || '''ut'asa'' || tua ti || ka'i; || 'i || t'asa || ka'i || ta || tua || ''ta'' || pu'a
|-
| PAST || give || TOP.SG || 2P || OBJ.SG || gift || REC.SG || 1P || PAST || give || 1P || OBJ.SG || REC.SG || 3P
|-
| you || gave || the || gift || to || me; || I || gave || it || to || him
|}
 
where '''ta''' in the second clause shows that 'ut'asa gift is still the object.
 
===Location===
The location-marking particle marks, unsurprisingly, location, after the generic relation-markers ni (in, at, on), na (to, at, towards), and nu (from, out of, away from). These are treated as adverbs, and thus come between the irrealis marker and the past marker before verbs. A locational expression can be used as a verb by placing the stative particle a'u before it and moving it to the front of the clause. In such a case, it can take the same particles as any verb, except a locational adverb. For example:
 
{|
! a'u || 'i || ni || pu || Sa'aku || ki || ka'i
|-
| STAT || PAST || in || LOC.SG || Sa'aku || TOP.SG || 1P
|-
| I || was || in || Sa'aku
|}
 
===Vocative===
The vocative particle marks direct address, e.g.
 
{|
! su || K'uanu, || ka || uka || n'a || ini
|-
| VOC.SG || K'uanu || TOP.SG || IMP || ALLADV || HERE
|-
| K'uanu, || come || hither
|}
 
===Plural===
The separate plural-marker ''''v''' is optional in most cases. It is usually only used in cases where context cannot distinguish number. It is only used on unmarked subjects/agents (i.e. the subjects/agents of clauses where the topic has been fronted).
 
===Possession===
Possessive relationships are shown by placing the possessor after the possessee, e.g.
 
{|
! ta'aka || ka'i
|-
| god || 1P
|-
| my || god
|}


==Verbal Morphology==
==Verbal Morphology==
'Ukana'akau verbs are isolating. Various particles placed before them indicate their mood (indicative, subjunctive, or imperative), and their tense (past, present, and future). The particles are as follows.
Verbs also take particles to show a number of things, as well as being able to be modified by adverbs. In the order they appear in a sentence: there is a particle marking a verb as irrealis (realis is unmarked), particles marking a verb as imperfective or stative (perfective is unmarked), a particle marking the past the past tense (non-past is unmarked), and a variety of particles (the list is incomplete) marking mode and evidentiality. The mood, aspect, and tense particles, as well as adverbs, come before the verb, while the mode and evidentiality markers are clause final. Finally, there are some special nominal constructions that affect the verb.
 
===Irrealis===
The irrealis particle is '''iki'''. It is used with the nonpast to show doubt, hope, or possibility, and with the past to show a contrafactual. With the clause-initial particle kiu, the irrealis sets up a condition which can have several different translations depending on a number of factors. The past irrealis sets up a contrafactual (if I had done...[and I didn't]; if I should do...[and I may or may not]) or hypothetical condition, and the nonpast sets up a standard condition (if I did...[and I did]; if I do...[and I will/have]). The tense of the realis determines whether the entire conditional is past (...then I would have done...) or nonpast (...then I will do...). (The parentheticals are just examples of some conditional openings and conclusions.)
 
===Perfective===
The perfective aspect is the default unmarked aspect. The imperfective aspect is marked by the particle '''a'i''' and the stative by the particle '''a'u'''. The perfective aspect shows that an action was/is/will be completed. The imperfective shows that the action was not/is not/will not be completed, or is habitual. The stative, like the perfect in English, shows a state resulting from a past action. The stative is also used to from stative verbs from adjectives and to turn verbs into a "participial/gerundive" form that can act as an adjective or a noun (although in the case of many common verbs, such as '''t'asa''' give, this form has already become codified as a noun, e.g. ''''ut'asa''' gift.
 
===Adverbs===
Following aspect markers come adverbs. Adverbs fall into several categories. First, there is the negative marker '''nui'''. In a sequence of adverbs, this always comes first, and marks that the verb is negative. Second come temporal markers such as ''''iaki''' ''yesterday'' and '''nuaki''' ''tomorrow''. Third come adverbs derived from adjectives with the particle '''sua'''. Finally, locational, allative, and ablative adverbs, either the simple forms such as '''n'i''' ''here, there'' or the long forms such as '''ni pu Sa'aku''' ''in Sa'aku''.
 
===Past===
Finally is the past tense marker ''''i'''. It shows that the verb describes a past action.
 
===Preverbal Particles===
So, the final order of preverbal particles: irrealis - aspect - negative - temporal - adverb - locative - past
 
===Clause-Final Particles
A number of particles are clause-final, acting somewhat like English modal verbs.
 
* '''ua''' is the permissive particle, either asking, granting, or withholding permission from someone.
* '''ita''' is the dubitative particle, showing doubt on behalf of the speaker.
* '''pau''' marks the sentence as hearsay: the speaker has yet to confirm what he or she has heard.
* '''kui''' marks the sentence as fact that the speaker has confirmed and believes to be true.
* '''anu''' is the potential particle, i.e. "able to" or "can".
 
Marking evidentiality with '''pau''' or '''kui''' is not obligatory, but can clarify the meaning of a sentence in some contexts. More of these particles are yet to come.
 
===Causative===
The causative works by adding a second agent argument A2. The second agent is marked by the particle '''is'a ('v)''' and is generally fronted, e.g.
 
{|
! is'a || 'u || 'Akau || 'i || k'aki || ki || ka'i || tu || nu'au
|-
| CAUS || PL || 'Akau || PAST || create || TOP.SG || 1P || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| the || 'Akau || made || me || create || the || world
|}
 
If a topic other than the subject of the main verb is fronted, A2 moves to clause-final position, although it always precedes the receiver argument, if there is one.
 
{|
! ku || nu'au || 'i || k'aki || ka'i || tu || is'a || ('u) || 'Akau
|-
| TOP.SG || world || PAST || create || 1P || OBJ.SG || CAUS || (PL) || 'Akau
|-
| as for || the || world, || the || 'Akau || made || me || create || it
|}
 
===Passive===
The passive, marked by the particle '''atu''', reverses A and P. The order of constituents changes from VAP to VP atu A. P is marked as the topic and A is unmarked, except for plurality. For example:


===Mood===
{|
The mood particles indicate whether a verb is indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. The indicative mood describes actions that the speaker is sure of. The subjunctive mood describes doubt, insecurity, and possibility, and is used in relative clauses. The imperative mood gives commands.
! 'i || k'aki || ku || nu'au || atu || ('u) || 'Akau
|-
| PAST || create || TOP.SG || world || PASS || (PL) || 'Akau
|-
| the || world || was || created || by || the || 'Akau
|}


*The indicative mood particle is '''ika'''. It is placed before the verb.
This usage is just an inverse, switching the emphasis from the agent to the patient. The passive can be translated with the English passive, but in reality it's usually just a less emphatic way of changing the topic. Topic-fronting is more common when specific emphasis is necessary, especially when changing the focus for the first time, but the passive is used in subsequent cases when the extra emphasis would be out of place.
*The subjunctive mood particle is '''aka'''. It is placed before the verb.
*The imperative mood particle is '''uka'''. It is placed before the verb.


===Tense===
However, the A argument can also be dropped, in which case a topic-marker is left in its place, a more prototypical passive than the general usage. This is one of a very few times that more than one topic-marker may appear in a clause.
The tense particles indicate when an action occurs: now (present), yesterday (past), or tomorrow (future).


*The present tense particle is ''''a'''. It is placed between the verb and the mood particle.
{|
*The past tense particle is ''''i'''. It is placed between the verb and the mood particle.
! 'i || k'aki || ku || nu'au || atu || k'u
*The future tense particle is ''''u'''. It is placed between the verb and the mood particle.
|-
| PAST || create || TOP.SG || world || PASS || TOP.PL
|-
| the || world || was || created || by || them
|}


The present tense particle and the indicative mood particle are usually omitted, only being added for emphasis (if a conversation in the past or future tense suddenly switches back to the present, for example).
===Imperative===
The imperative takes no preverbal particles, is usually preceded by a vocative expression, and always replaces the subject/agent (the commandee) with the particle '''uka'''. '''Uka''' is always topic-marked and fronted. No anaphoric particle is left in its place.


==Adjective Morphology==
{|
Adjectives are placed after the nouns they modify. Some of them are incorporated into compound words (e.g. chicken is "fat bird"). There is no adjective agreement. When using an adjective to refer to, for example "the fat one", simply treat the adjective as a noun in the context of the sentence. Here are some examples.
! su || ti'u, || ka || uka || k'aki || tu || nu'au
|-
| VOC.SG || 2P || TOP.SG || IMP || create || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| you, || create || the || world
|}


*'''Ak'u ku utanitu nu n'itu.''' The chicken is fat.
===Existentials===
*''''U 'ipuk'u ku ti'u n'u kanu nu'i!''' Unite the good people!
Existentials are formed with the stative expression a'u n'i. N'i is a pronominal/adverbial particle meaning here, there. This expression is treated as a verb in all respects, including fronting and taking particles. If clarification as to the location is needed, a further locative expression can be used, e.g.
*'''Ak'u ka pu'a su kanu k'aku nu'i k'iu su nuta'u.''' He is the best person in the world.


==Verbal Morphology: The Passive Voice==
{|
To form the passive voice, use '''ak'u''' as the active verb, and use the passive verb as a noun, the direct object. The agent takes the dative/locative case, without a preposition. For example:
! a'u || 'i || ni || pu || Sa'aku || n'i || ka || ta'aka
|-
| STAT || PAST || in || LOC.SG || Sa'aku || LOCADV || TOP.SG || god
|-
| there || was || a || god || in || Sa'aku
|}


*''''I ak'u k'u kanu nu'i nu ipuk'u sa pu'a.''' The good people were united by him.
===Impersonal Expressions===
*''''I kinu ka pu'a 'ui ni ka'i.''' He talked to me.
Impersonal expressions are formed with the ubiquitous stative particle '''a'u''' and an anaphoric topic '''ka'''. Like the passive, if another topic is to be fronted, the extra topic marker remains. An impersonal sentence may be translated in a number of ways depending on context.


==Pronominative Morphology: Nonpersonal Pronouns==
{|
'Ukana'akau has a wide variety of non-personal pronouns in five degrees of definiteness: total, indefinite, partial, definite (sometimes there are two definite pronouns), nullar, and interrogative. These fit into four groups: person, place, thing, and time.  
! k'u || nu'au || a'u || n'i || k'aki || ka
|-
| TOP.PL || world || STAT || LOCADV || create || TOP.SG
|-
| worlds || are || created || there
|-
| "they" || create || worlds || there
|}


===Person Pronouns===
{|
The person pronouns are, in English: everyone, anyone, someone, no-one, and who. In 'Ukana'akau they are:
! a'u || n'i || kinu || ka || tu || 'Ukana'akau
|-
| STAT || LOCADV || speak || TOP.SG || OBJ.SG || 'Ukana'akau
|-
| "they" || speak || 'Ukana'akau || there
|-
| 'Ukana'akau || is || spoken || there
|}


*Total: '''tip'u''' (everything)
It can also express, to a certain degree, ability, e.g. they can speak 'Ukana'akau there.
*Indefinite: '''pip'u''' (anyone)
*Partial: '''sip'u''' (someone)
*Nullar: 'ip'u''' (no-one)
*Interrogative: '''ip'u''' (who)


===Place Pronouns===
==Adjectives==
The place pronouns are, in English: everywhere, anywhere, somewhere, here, there, nowhere, and where. In 'Ukana'akau they are:
Adjectives, such as '''puia''' ''red'', always follow the noun they modify, e.g.


*Total: '''tuk'a''' (everywhere)
{|
*Indefinite: '''puk'a''' (anywhere)
! 'ut'asa || puia
*Partial: '''suk'a''' (somewhere)
|-
*Definite: '''nuk'a''' (here)
| gift || red
*Definite: '''nak'a''' (there)
|-
*Nullar: ''''uk'a''' (nowhere)
| red gift
*Interrogative: '''ik'a''' (where)
|}


===Thing Pronouns===
However, if the adjective is really a stative verb, the stative marker '''a'u''' precedes the noun but follows any nominal particle, e.g.
The thing pronouns are, in English: everything, anything, something, this, that, nothing, and what. In 'Ukana'akau, they are:


*Total: '''tat'i''' (everything)
{|
*Indefinite: '''pat'i''' (anything)
! ka || a'u || 'ut'asa || t'asa
*Partial: '''sat'i''' (something)
|-
*Definite: '''nat'i''' (this)
| TOP.SG || STAT || gift || give
*Definite: '''nut'i''' (that)
|-
*Nullar: ''''at'i''' (nothing)
| the || given || gift
*Interrogative: '''it'i''' (what)
|-
| the || gift || that || is || given
|}


===Time Pronouns===
An adjective may be used as a stative verb, e.g. ''be red''. In such cases it acts as a verb in all respects, including taking verbal particles and moving to the front of the clause. Such adjectives always take the stative particle ''a'u'':
The time pronouns are, in English: always, anytime, sometimes, now, then, never, and when. In 'Ukana'akau they are:


*Total: '''tak'u''' (always)
{|
*Indefinite: '''pak'u''' (anytime)
! a'u || 'i || puia || ku || 'Akau
*Partial: '''sak'u''' (sometimes)
|-
*Definite: '''nak'u''' (now)
| STAT || PAST || red || TOP.SG || 'Akau
*Definite: '''nik'u''' (then)
|-
*Nullar: ''''ak'u''' (never)
| the || 'Akau || was || red
*Interrogative: '''ik'u''' (when)
|}


==Texts==
An adjective can be changed into an adverb with the particle '''sua'''. Adverbs (formed with '''sua''' or otherwise) can be used to modify adjectives. In such cases, the adverb follows the noun it modifies.
===Creation Story===
'Ia si ka'iaki: 'i k'aki k'a ta'aka nu nuta'u. 'I k'aki k'a pu'a na pu'a k'iu si 'at'i. 'I k'aki una 'aki k'a pu'a n'i tu'ai. 'I k'aki una k'ua k'a pu'a n'i ku'ai. 'I k'aki una nai k'a pu'a n'i utani 'ia su ki'u. 'I k'aki una ki'au k'a pu'a n'a ina 'ia si tu'ai. 'I k'aki una a'uni k'a pu'a n'u kanu. Au 'i kinu k'a ta'aka 'ui s'u kanu: "Aka k'iki k'u ti'u t'i ka'i n'i k'aki; t'i ka'i n'u k'inu." Au 'i kinu k'u kanu: "'U k'iki k'i ka'i p'a ta'aka." Au 'i iku k'u kanu 'ia nu nuta'u au 'i ipuku k'a pu'a na pu'a nu'i.


==Links==
{|
*[['Ukana'akau Lexicon]]
! ka || ta'aka || puia || nui
|-
| TOP.SG || god || red || not
|-
| the || not || red || god
|}


[[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Alternate Earth]][[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori conlangs]]

Revision as of 15:15, 25 March 2008


'Ukana'akau
Pronounced: /?ukana?akau/
Timeline and Universe: nonspecific
Species: Human
Spoken: nonspecific
Total speakers: unknown
Writing system: Own
Genealogy: None
Typology
Morphological type: Isolating
Morphosyntactic alignment: Accusative-Dative
Basic word order: (T)VAP
Credits
Creator: Sectori
Created: February 2006
revised March 2008

'Ukana'akau was created by Sectori on the ZBB as part of Neek's Minimal Phonology Challenge in February 2006. It was revised in March 2008. Relevant linguistic information: the speakers of 'Ukana'akau are called the 'Akau. 'Ukana'akau is topic-marking, almost completely isolating, and accusative-dative (see below for more information).

Phonology

'Ukana'akau has a fairly simple phonology.

Phoneme Inventory

The nine phonemes of the challenge were /p t k s n ? a i u/, romanized as <p t k s n ' a i u>. Additionally, there is a fourth "grammatical vowel", transcribed <v>, which is covered in more detail in the section on nominal morphology.

Syllables

'Ukana'akau's original syllable structure was (C)(')V (with '' not permitted), but C' clusters have since been reanalyzed as glottalized consonants /p_? t_? k_? s_? n_?/, leaving the structure (C)V.

Allophony

Vowel clusters, which technically constitute multiple syllables, are generally realized as diphthongs or triphthongs.

Stress

Stress falls regularly on the penultimate syllable. Monosyllabic words are usually stressed. However, particles, such as iki and tv are never stressed.

Nominal Morphology

A note at the beginning: any time the word "noun" appears in this section, it can be freely replaced with "pronoun," which is to say they are treated the same. A variety of preposed particles are used with nouns.

  • kv is the topic-marking particle
  • tv is the object-marking particle
  • pv is the location/motion-marking particle
  • sv is the vocative particle
  • 'v is the generic plural-marking particle

When a plural needs to be marked on any particle other than 'v, the initial consonant becomes glottalized, i.e. k'v, t'v, p'v, s'v.

Topic

The topic-marking particle defaults to being placed before the subject/agent of the sentence, i.e.

k'aki k'a ta'aka tu nu'au
create TOP.PL god OBJ.SG world
the gods create the world

where k'a marks ta'aka gods as the topic/agent. If further emphasis is desired, or if another nominal or pronominal constituent is be topic marked, the topic is fronted and an anaphoric particle is left in its place (the marker for the fronted constituent), for example

ku nu'au k'aki ('a) ta'aka tu
TOP.SG world create (PL) god OBJ.SG
the world, the gods create it

The topic can also act as an introductory phrase, i.e. as for the world, the gods created it. The anaphoric pronoun is the particle that was in the original sentence.

Object

The object-marking particle marks the direct object/patient by default, and is used in several compound expressions, e.g. tua tv (marks the recipient or beneficiary). When an object has already been stated, rather than restate it or use a third person pronoun, the object particle is used as an anaphoric device. For example,

'i t'asa ku ti'u ta 'ut'asa tua ti ka'i; 'i t'asa ka'i ta tua ta pu'a
PAST give TOP.SG 2P OBJ.SG gift REC.SG 1P PAST give 1P OBJ.SG REC.SG 3P
you gave the gift to me; I gave it to him

where ta in the second clause shows that 'ut'asa gift is still the object.

Location

The location-marking particle marks, unsurprisingly, location, after the generic relation-markers ni (in, at, on), na (to, at, towards), and nu (from, out of, away from). These are treated as adverbs, and thus come between the irrealis marker and the past marker before verbs. A locational expression can be used as a verb by placing the stative particle a'u before it and moving it to the front of the clause. In such a case, it can take the same particles as any verb, except a locational adverb. For example:

a'u 'i ni pu Sa'aku ki ka'i
STAT PAST in LOC.SG Sa'aku TOP.SG 1P
I was in Sa'aku

Vocative

The vocative particle marks direct address, e.g.

su K'uanu, ka uka n'a ini
VOC.SG K'uanu TOP.SG IMP ALLADV HERE
K'uanu, come hither

Plural

The separate plural-marker 'v is optional in most cases. It is usually only used in cases where context cannot distinguish number. It is only used on unmarked subjects/agents (i.e. the subjects/agents of clauses where the topic has been fronted).

Possession

Possessive relationships are shown by placing the possessor after the possessee, e.g.

ta'aka ka'i
god 1P
my god

Verbal Morphology

Verbs also take particles to show a number of things, as well as being able to be modified by adverbs. In the order they appear in a sentence: there is a particle marking a verb as irrealis (realis is unmarked), particles marking a verb as imperfective or stative (perfective is unmarked), a particle marking the past the past tense (non-past is unmarked), and a variety of particles (the list is incomplete) marking mode and evidentiality. The mood, aspect, and tense particles, as well as adverbs, come before the verb, while the mode and evidentiality markers are clause final. Finally, there are some special nominal constructions that affect the verb.

Irrealis

The irrealis particle is iki. It is used with the nonpast to show doubt, hope, or possibility, and with the past to show a contrafactual. With the clause-initial particle kiu, the irrealis sets up a condition which can have several different translations depending on a number of factors. The past irrealis sets up a contrafactual (if I had done...[and I didn't]; if I should do...[and I may or may not]) or hypothetical condition, and the nonpast sets up a standard condition (if I did...[and I did]; if I do...[and I will/have]). The tense of the realis determines whether the entire conditional is past (...then I would have done...) or nonpast (...then I will do...). (The parentheticals are just examples of some conditional openings and conclusions.)

Perfective

The perfective aspect is the default unmarked aspect. The imperfective aspect is marked by the particle a'i and the stative by the particle a'u. The perfective aspect shows that an action was/is/will be completed. The imperfective shows that the action was not/is not/will not be completed, or is habitual. The stative, like the perfect in English, shows a state resulting from a past action. The stative is also used to from stative verbs from adjectives and to turn verbs into a "participial/gerundive" form that can act as an adjective or a noun (although in the case of many common verbs, such as t'asa give, this form has already become codified as a noun, e.g. 'ut'asa gift.

Adverbs

Following aspect markers come adverbs. Adverbs fall into several categories. First, there is the negative marker nui. In a sequence of adverbs, this always comes first, and marks that the verb is negative. Second come temporal markers such as 'iaki yesterday and nuaki tomorrow. Third come adverbs derived from adjectives with the particle sua. Finally, locational, allative, and ablative adverbs, either the simple forms such as n'i here, there or the long forms such as ni pu Sa'aku in Sa'aku.

Past

Finally is the past tense marker 'i. It shows that the verb describes a past action.

Preverbal Particles

So, the final order of preverbal particles: irrealis - aspect - negative - temporal - adverb - locative - past

===Clause-Final Particles A number of particles are clause-final, acting somewhat like English modal verbs.

  • ua is the permissive particle, either asking, granting, or withholding permission from someone.
  • ita is the dubitative particle, showing doubt on behalf of the speaker.
  • pau marks the sentence as hearsay: the speaker has yet to confirm what he or she has heard.
  • kui marks the sentence as fact that the speaker has confirmed and believes to be true.
  • anu is the potential particle, i.e. "able to" or "can".

Marking evidentiality with pau or kui is not obligatory, but can clarify the meaning of a sentence in some contexts. More of these particles are yet to come.

Causative

The causative works by adding a second agent argument A2. The second agent is marked by the particle is'a ('v) and is generally fronted, e.g.

is'a 'u 'Akau 'i k'aki ki ka'i tu nu'au
CAUS PL 'Akau PAST create TOP.SG 1P OBJ.SG world
the 'Akau made me create the world

If a topic other than the subject of the main verb is fronted, A2 moves to clause-final position, although it always precedes the receiver argument, if there is one.

ku nu'au 'i k'aki ka'i tu is'a ('u) 'Akau
TOP.SG world PAST create 1P OBJ.SG CAUS (PL) 'Akau
as for the world, the 'Akau made me create it

Passive

The passive, marked by the particle atu, reverses A and P. The order of constituents changes from VAP to VP atu A. P is marked as the topic and A is unmarked, except for plurality. For example:

'i k'aki ku nu'au atu ('u) 'Akau
PAST create TOP.SG world PASS (PL) 'Akau
the world was created by the 'Akau

This usage is just an inverse, switching the emphasis from the agent to the patient. The passive can be translated with the English passive, but in reality it's usually just a less emphatic way of changing the topic. Topic-fronting is more common when specific emphasis is necessary, especially when changing the focus for the first time, but the passive is used in subsequent cases when the extra emphasis would be out of place.

However, the A argument can also be dropped, in which case a topic-marker is left in its place, a more prototypical passive than the general usage. This is one of a very few times that more than one topic-marker may appear in a clause.

'i k'aki ku nu'au atu k'u
PAST create TOP.SG world PASS TOP.PL
the world was created by them

Imperative

The imperative takes no preverbal particles, is usually preceded by a vocative expression, and always replaces the subject/agent (the commandee) with the particle uka. Uka is always topic-marked and fronted. No anaphoric particle is left in its place.

su ti'u, ka uka k'aki tu nu'au
VOC.SG 2P TOP.SG IMP create OBJ.SG world
you, create the world

Existentials

Existentials are formed with the stative expression a'u n'i. N'i is a pronominal/adverbial particle meaning here, there. This expression is treated as a verb in all respects, including fronting and taking particles. If clarification as to the location is needed, a further locative expression can be used, e.g.

a'u 'i ni pu Sa'aku n'i ka ta'aka
STAT PAST in LOC.SG Sa'aku LOCADV TOP.SG god
there was a god in Sa'aku

Impersonal Expressions

Impersonal expressions are formed with the ubiquitous stative particle a'u and an anaphoric topic ka. Like the passive, if another topic is to be fronted, the extra topic marker remains. An impersonal sentence may be translated in a number of ways depending on context.

k'u nu'au a'u n'i k'aki ka
TOP.PL world STAT LOCADV create TOP.SG
worlds are created there
"they" create worlds there
a'u n'i kinu ka tu 'Ukana'akau
STAT LOCADV speak TOP.SG OBJ.SG 'Ukana'akau
"they" speak 'Ukana'akau there
'Ukana'akau is spoken there

It can also express, to a certain degree, ability, e.g. they can speak 'Ukana'akau there.

Adjectives

Adjectives, such as puia red, always follow the noun they modify, e.g.

'ut'asa puia
gift red
red gift

However, if the adjective is really a stative verb, the stative marker a'u precedes the noun but follows any nominal particle, e.g.

ka a'u 'ut'asa t'asa
TOP.SG STAT gift give
the given gift
the gift that is given

An adjective may be used as a stative verb, e.g. be red. In such cases it acts as a verb in all respects, including taking verbal particles and moving to the front of the clause. Such adjectives always take the stative particle a'u:

a'u 'i puia ku 'Akau
STAT PAST red TOP.SG 'Akau
the 'Akau was red

An adjective can be changed into an adverb with the particle sua. Adverbs (formed with sua or otherwise) can be used to modify adjectives. In such cases, the adverb follows the noun it modifies.

ka ta'aka puia nui
TOP.SG god red not
the not red god
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