User:Masako/pataka

Introduction

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any other IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Phonology

Kalo has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.

Consonants

	Labial	Coronal	Dorsal
Nasal	m	n
Plosive	p	t	k
Fricative		s
Approximant	w	l	j (y)

Vowels

	Front	Back
Close	i	u
Mid	e	o
Open	a

Diphthongs

There are two diphthongs [ai̯] ai, and [au̯] au. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.

Syllable Structure

All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.

Syllables

The ordering of the syllables is based on Japanese Gojūon.

a	ka	sa	ta	na	pa	ma	ya	la	wa
i	ki	si	ti	ni	pi	mi		li	wi
u	ku	su	tu	nu	pu	mu	yu	lu
e	ke	se	te	ne	pe	me	ye	le	we
o	ko	so	to	no	po	mo	yo	lo

a an e en i in ka kan ke ken ki kin ko kon ku kun la lan le len li lin lo lon lu lun ma man me men mi min mo mon mu mun na nan ne nen ni nin no non nu nun o on pa pan pe pen pi pin po pon pu pun sa san se sen si sin so son su sun ta tan te ten ti tin to ton tu tun u un wa wan we wen wi win ya yan ye yen yo yon yu yun

phonotactics

A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.

Allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Writing

Kalo can be written with numerous writing systems, and is adaptable to various alphabets, abugidas, and even logographies, but for aesthetical reasons, a simplified adaptation of Hangul is used.

Syntax

Classical Arabic is primarily VSO, but MSA (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be SVO, favoring full agreement over partial.

Chinese is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb.

Spanish unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable.

English word order is almost exclusively SVO.

Hindi is primarily an SOV language.

Based on the above information about the main source languages for Kalo, it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.

• wa toma - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)

• wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)

• o koma amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

questions

The interrogative particle ma (taken from Chinese (嗎) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.

non-polar questions

• ma - what; which
• ma ko - who, whom
• ma koyo - whose, of whom
• ma tenpo - when

• ma loka - where
• ma moto - how
• ma laka - how much, how many
• ma sapa - why

polar questions

Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle ma at the end of the sentence.

• wa wite le kasa

1S see PST house

I saw the house.

• ni wite le kasa ma

2S see PST house Q

Did you see the house?

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

Pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

	singular	plural	possessive
1st person	wa I; me	walo we; us	wayo my; mine; our(s)
2nd person	ni you	nilo you (all)	niyo your(s)
3rd person	ko he; she; him; her; it	kolo they; them; those	koyo their(s)

• walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.

• kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Gender

TBD

爸 / 媽

Verbs

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

• yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
• ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Conditionals

Uncertainty is marked by ki, kisa, or kile. These are taken from Spanish (quizá) and used across the three basic tenses. It can also act as a subordinating conjunction, and conditional constructions, “if, whether”. It is also used to express possibility or probability.

• tela wa ki ni wite ko - tell 1s if 2s see 3s - Tell me if you can see her.
• ki ni amo yawe te pu yuma ne inpo - if 2sg like weather of today NEG important - Whether you like today’s weather does not matter.
• kisa pu yuma yuwa - maybe this day rain - It may rain (later) today.

Prepositions

• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar#Prepositions

Number

Kalo	number	English	Kalo	number	English
nulu	0	zero	na	7	seven
wa	1	one	pa	8	eight
li	2	two	nun	9	nine
san	3	three	ye	10	ten
si	4	four	aku / -ku	100	(one) hundred
pen	5	five	mila	1000	(one) thousand
we	6	six

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the number marker "ke" precedes the number.

• ko yo le kasa ke li

3s have PST house NUM two

She had two houses.

• wa wite apa ke si

1s see man NUM four

I see four men.

Lexicon

a

• amo (SPA amor) - v - like; love; adore | n - affection; adoration; love
• ante (SPA ante) - prep - before; in front; forward; ahead; previous; last
• asi (SPA así) - part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore
• ate (ARA عادي) - v - be normal; usual; customary; habitual | n habit; custom

• aye (ZHO 異) - v/n - different; other; hetero-; unusual; strange; to distinguish; to separate; to discriminate
• ayo (ARA أي) - pro - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]; any(thing)

i

• ila (SPA إلى) - prep - to; toward; until; near | v - to move toward; go

k

• kai (ZHO 該) - v - should; ought to; need to; have to
• kasa (SPA casa) - n - house; building | v - live in; dwell
• kate (ARA خط) - n - writing; letters | v - mark; draw; carve
• kipu (ARA وقف) - n - pause; cessation | v - stop; halt; cease; pause; discontinue
• kisa (SPA quizá) - part - perhaps; maybe [also ki - if; kile - maybe 'it was']
• kono (SPA conocer) - v - know; be aware of; understand; recognize | n - knowledge; awareness
• koyo (ZHO 個有) - part - whose; of who
• kula (ARA كل) - v - be complete; whole | n - all; entire; every; each
• kun (SPA con/跟) - prep - with; by; via | v - use; employ
• kute (FRE écouter) - v - listen; hear

l

• lana (HIN रहना) - v - remain; stay (still); stand; continue
• lapa (ARA لعب) - v - play; amuse; enjoy | n - toy; play; amusement
• lata (SPA lata) - v - carry; transport | n - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
• loka (SPA local) - n - place; location; point; spot
• luna (SPA luna) - n - moon; satellite; orbiting body; month
• luwi (SPA lluvia) - v/n - rain; precipitation

m

• mala (ARA امرأة) - n - woman; female; wife
• maso (SPA más) - v - again; add; repeat; layer | n - more; addition; layer
• meno (FRE menos) - v - less; subtract; minus | n less; fewer; subtraction
• mente (SPA mente) - v - think; ponder; consider | n - thought; consideration; mind; mental state

• moto (SPA modo) - n - manner; method; how; way; mood
• muki (ARA مهم) - v/n - be important; matter / issue

n

• nai (JPN 内) - prep - inside; within; during; central; middle; center [locative and temporal]
• nalu (JPN なる) - v/n - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
• nama (ARA نام) - v/n - sleep; rest; relax
• nan(o) (ZHO 男) - n - man; male
• naya (HIN नया) - v - be new; fresh; young

• note (SPA noche) - n - night; darkness

o

• ola (SPA hola) - part - hello; goodbye | v - greet
• oma (GER Oma) - n - mother; female parent; any adult female family member
• opa (GER Opa) - n - father; male parent; any adult male family member

p

• pala (SPA palabra) - n - word; morpheme; lexeme; lemma
• pan (SPA/ZHO pan/飯) - n - food; bread; grains; rice; sustenance

• pesi (SPA pez) - n - fish; aquatic animal(s) | v - swim; wade; move through water
• pin(a) (ARA ابن) - n - child; offspring; kid
• po (SPA por/para) - prep - for; by; through; because | v - be about; move across
• poka (SPA poca) - v - (be) small; tiny; few; some; little
• pone (SPA poner) - v - put; place; set; establish
• pote (SPA poder) - v - be able to; can | n - ability; capability

• pusu (TUR bu+şu) - part - both; "this and that"

s

• saka/na (ARA سخن) - v/n - hot; heat; warm(th); fire
• salama (ARA سلم) - v/n - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet / be peaceful; be calm
• sana (ARA سنة) - n - year; 365 days
• sapa (ARA سبب) - n - reason; motive; cause
• sawa (ARA زوج) - n - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
• sayo (ARA شي‎) - n - thing; object; matter; noun
• se (KOR 서로) - part - each [other]; mutually; reciprocal

• sima or isima (ARA اسم) - v/n - noun; name; be called
• simi (ENG/SPA similar) - v - resemble; similar; like
• siya (ZHO 下) - v/prep - under; below; down
• solo (SPA solo) - v - alone; solitary; only; unique
• sosa (ENG sauce) - n - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing

• suku (ZHO 足夠) - v - be enough; adequate; sufficient; ample
• sula (HIN सुलभ) - v/n - light; easy; convenient; gentle; soft

t

• ta (ZHO 大) - v - (be) big; large; heavy; long; tall | part very (much/many); extremely
• tali (ARA تال) - v/n - order; sequence; be next; subsequent
• tanka (ENG/GER thank/danke) - v/part - thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
• tapo (ZHO 打破) - v/n - destruction; damage; wreck; break; destroy
• te (SPA/ZHO de/的) - prep - of; from
• tela or talo (PIE del) - v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell | n - language; discussion; conversation
• tenpo (SPA tiempo) - n - time; hour; period; age
• tiya (SPA tía) - n - aunt/uncle
• toma (SPA tomar) - v - eat; drink; ingest | n - eating; drinking
• tonpa (ZHO 同胞) - n - sibling; compatriot; friend
• tonye (ZHO 同一) - part - same; replicate; duplicate
• tonye (ZHO 讀書) - v/n - discern; find out; learn

w

• wa (ZHO 我) - pro - I; me [1sg]

• waya (HIN वयस्क) - v - grow; mature; develop | n - adult; mature thing
• weko (SPA hueco) - n - door, hole, orifice, window; port
• wela (SPA fuera) - v/prep - (be/go) outside; exterior; surface
• wenta (SPA viento) - v/n - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
• wika (HIN विकट) - v/n - difficult; hard; arduous; uncomfortable; problem
• wino (SPA vino) - v/n - (drink) alcohol; beer; wine
• wite (PIE weyd) - v - look; see; observe; watch; read

y

• ya (ARA يا) - part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
• yame (ARA جمع) - v - gather; group; collect | n - gathering; group; collection; set
• yati (ARA يد) - n - arm, hand, tactile organ

• yeko (ZHO 以後) - prep - after; afterward(s); later | n - back; behind; rear
• yo (ZHO 有) - v - have; possess; hold
• yu (ZHO 於) - prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of [strictly locative]
• yuma (ARA يوم) - n - day; daylight; 24 hour period

zzz

121 early 122 late 123 important 124 interesting 125 fun 126 boring 127 beautiful 128 big 129 small 130 happy 131 sad 132 busy 133 excited 134 tired 135 ready 136 favorite 137 new 138 right (meaning “correct”) 139 wrong 140 true 141 Pronouns 142 143 I / me / my 144 145 I 146 you 147 she 148 he 149 it 150 we 151 you (plural) 152 they 153 Nouns 154 155 156 157 everything 158 something 159 nothing 160 everyone 161 someone 162 no one 163 (name of the language you’re studying) 164 English 165 thing 166 person 167 place 168 time (as in “a long time”) 169 time (as in “I did it 3 times”) 170 friend 171 woman 172 man 173 money 174 country 175 (name of your home country) 176 city 177 language 178 word 179 food 180 house 181 store 182 office 183 company 184 manager 185 coworker 186 job 187 work (as in “I have a lot of work to do”) 188 problem 189 question 190 idea 191 life 192 world 193 day 194 year 195 week 196 month 197 hour 198 mother, father, parent 199 daughter, son, child 200 wife, husband 201 girlfriend, boyfriend 202 More Verbs 203 204 work (as in a person working) 205 work (meaning “to function”, e.g. “the TV works”) 206 see 207 use 208 should 209 believe 210 practice 211 seem 212 come 213 leave 214 return 215 give 216 take 217 bring 218 look for 219 find 220 get (meaning “obtain”) 221 receive 222 buy 223 try 224 start 225 stop (doing something) 226 finish 227 continue 228 wake up 229 get up 230 eat 231 eat breakfast (in several languages, this is a verb) 232 eat lunch 233 eat dinner 234 happen 235 feel 236 create (aka “make”) 237 cause (aka “make”) 238 meet (meeting someone for the first time) 239 meet (meaning “to bump into”) 240 meet (an arranged meeting) 241 ask (a question) 242 ask for (aka “request”) 243 wonder 244 reply 245 mean 246 read 247 write 248 listen 249 hear 250 remember 251 forget 252 choose 253 decide 254 be born 255 die 256 kill 257 live 258 stay 259 change 260 help 261 send 262 study 263 improve 264 hope 265 care 266 Phrases 267 268 hello 269 goodbye 270 thank you 271 you’re welcome 272 excuse me (to get someone’s attention) 273 sorry 274 it’s fine (response to an apology) 275 please 276 yes 277 no 278 okay 279 My name is 280 What’s your name? 281 Nice to meet you. 282 How are you? 283 I’m doing well, how about you? 284 Sorry? / What? (if you didn’t hear something) 285 How do you say ______? 286 What does ______ mean? 287 I don’t understand. 288 Could you repeat that? 289 Could you speak more slowly, please? 290 Well (as in “well, I think…”) 291 Really? 292 I guess that 293 It’s hot. (talking about the weather) 294 It’s cold. (talking about the weather)