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| = Morphology =
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| == Verbs ==
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| == Nouns ==
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| == Case ==
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| Case is marked with suffixes. The regular forms of the case markers are given in the list below. Case is marked on noun phrases using null marking for agents, and '''-n''' for patients. The clitic '''-n''' can appear on multiple noun phrases in a single sentence at once, such as the direct object, indirect object, and adverbial nouns.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
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| ! Case
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| ! Suffix
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| ! Example
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| |-align=center
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| | Nominative<br>[NOM]
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| | '''-Ø'''
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| | '''yona''' (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Accusative<br>[ACC]
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| | '''-n'''
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| | '''yonan''' (the/a) book [''dir. object/patient'']
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| |-align=center
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| | Genitive<br>[GEN]
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| | '''-yo'''
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| | '''yonayo''' of, belonging to (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Dative<br>[DAT]
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| | '''-la'''
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| | '''yonala''' for, to, at (the/a) book [''indir. object/patient'']
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| |-align=center
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| | Locative<br>[LOC]
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| | '''-hue'''
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| | '''yonahue''' in, on, at (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Ablative<br>[ABL]
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| | '''-nte / -uai'''
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| | '''yonante''' from, of (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Comitative<br>[COM]
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| | '''-mua'''
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| | '''yonamua''' with, by, via, using (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Abessive<br>[ABE]
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| | '''-mue'''
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| | '''yonamue''' without (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Terminative<br>[TERM]
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| | '''-mpe'''
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| | '''yonampe''' up to, just, only (the/a) book
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| |}
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| The nominative [NOM] is not marked [-Ø] and is in the absolutive form. It indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer. The accusative is marked with the clitic '''-n''' (from '''no''' - ''thing; object'') and indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as '''''Oblique''''' [OBL] occasionally), instrument, or experiencer. The genitive '''-yo''' (from '''yoha''' - ''have; possess'') indicates inalienable association or possession, whereas the particle '''te''' (''of; from'')indicates alienable association or possession and is roughly equivalent to the ablative case. The dative/(al)lative '''-la''' (from '''yala''' - ''go; walk'') indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object. The locative '''-hue''' indicates location or circumstance, and can be used to indicate the durative for stative verb constructions. The ablative '''-nte''' (from '''te''' - ''of; from'') / '''-uai''' (from '''uaye''' - ''from out of/away'') indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location. The comitative/instrumental/inclusive/coordinative '''-mua''' (from '''mua''' - ''with; (be) together'') indicates instrument, or in company of something. The abessive '''-mue''' indicates the lack or absence of something, it is roughly analogous to the English suffix ''-less''. The terminative/limitative '''-mpe''' (from '''amye''' - ''be alone; final'') indicates the extent, finality, or limit of a thing.
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| === Postpositional Verbs ===
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| In addition to the case system, there are several pospositional stative verbs. These are used interchangeably as pospositions and/or serial verbs.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| ==== Locational ====
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| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
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| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear; beyond
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| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
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| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at
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| * '''mahe''' - between; among [intrative INTR]
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| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front (of)
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| * '''nahe''' - inside; interior; during; within
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| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
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| * '''tla'e''' - around; encircling; surrounding; approximately
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| * '''uaye''' - from [out/away]
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| * '''ua'e''' - above; over; on
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| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
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| {{col-break}}
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| ==== Relational ====
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| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
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| * '''nka'e''' - in spite of; regardless of
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| * '''tsahe''' - for [in exchange for]
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| * '''tsaue''' - so long as; provided that
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| * '''tlaye''' - according to; based on
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| * '''te''' - of [belonging to; = GEN]; about
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| * '''uahe''' - instead of; rather than
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| * '''kue''' - like; similar to
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| * '''nya / nya'e''' - for [BEN]; purpose of; in order
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| * '''nyahe''' - by means of; per; via
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| * '''yahe''' - of [containing specified quantity]
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| {{col-break}}
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| ==== Temporal ====
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| * '''maye''' - before
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| * '''kaye''' - until; up to; as far as
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| * '''naye''' - during; while
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| * '''maue''' - as soon as; when
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| * '''tsaye''' - during; start to end
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| * '''paye''' - after
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| * '''taye''' - since; from the end
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| {{col-end}}
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| * '''mita ina naye uakatsu te keya ue'o yahe hayo yempa taheye'''
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| : <small>dog eat while bovine.flesh of gram ten amount.of 3sg.GEN table be.under-PST</small>
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| : ''The dog was under the table while eating his 10 grams of beef.''
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| == Gender ==
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| Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
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| * <b>kuma</b> - <small>bear</small> - <i>a bear</i> → <b>kumana</b> - <small>bear-FEM</small> - <i>sow</i> → <b>kumata</b> - <small>bear-MASC</small> - <i>boar</i>
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| * <b>masa</b> - <small>deer</small> - <i>a deer</i> → <b>masana</b> - <small>deer-FEM</small> - <i>doe</i> → <b>masata</b> - <small>deer-MASC</small> - <i>stag</i>
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| * <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i> → <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i> → <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>
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| == Pronouns and Determiners ==
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| Personal pronouns:
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| * '''na''' - 1st person
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| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
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| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
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| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
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| {{col-break}}
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| Modifiers:
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| * '''-m''' - plural
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| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
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| * '''e-''' - patient
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| * '''-i''' - reflexive
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| * '''-yo''' - possessive
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| {{col-break}}
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| Other pronouns include:
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| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
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| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
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| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
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| * '''nokua''' - everything
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| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
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| * '''nok''' - nothing
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| {{col-end}}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ nkalo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Agent
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| ! Patient
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| ! Reflexive
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| ! Possessive
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| ! Reciprocal
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| |-
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| ! 1sg
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| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 2sg
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| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 3sg
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| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 4sg
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| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
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| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| ! 2pl
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| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 3pl
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| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 4pl
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| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |}
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| === Pronominal constructions ===
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| The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''neha anya'''
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| : <small>1s-P.3s see</small>
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| : ''I see her.''
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| * '''kameta motoyek'''
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| : <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small>
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| : ''They didn’t remember you.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tametla yohauek'''
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| : <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small>
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| : ''You (all) don’t want to have it.''
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| * '''nya tena tapya ka'''
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| : <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small>
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| : ''Why are you following me?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
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| ! A/P
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| ! ''1sg''
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| ! ''2sg''
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| ! ''3sg''
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| ! ''4sg''
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| ! ''1pl''
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| ! ''1pl.EXCL''
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| ! ''2pl''
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| ! ''3pl''
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| ! ''4pl''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1sg''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''neta'''
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| | '''neha'''
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| | '''netla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''netam'''
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| | '''nekam'''
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| | '''netlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''2sg''
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| | '''tena'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''teha'''
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| | '''tetla'''
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| | '''tenam'''
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| | '''tena'am'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tekam'''
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| | '''tetlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''3sg''
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| | '''hena'''
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| | '''heta'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''hetla'''
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| | '''henam'''
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| | '''hena'am'''
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| | '''hetam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''hetlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''4sg''
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| | '''tlena'''
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| | '''tleta'''
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| | '''tleha'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tlenam'''
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| | '''tlena'am'''
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| | '''tletam'''
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| | '''tlekam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1pl''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''nameta'''
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| | '''nameha'''
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| | '''nametla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''nametam'''
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| | '''namekam'''
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| | '''nametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1pl.EXCL''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''na'ameta'''
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| | '''na'ameha'''
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| | '''na'ametla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''na'ametam'''
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| | '''na'amekam'''
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| | '''na'ametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''2pl''
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| | '''tamena'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tameha'''
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| | '''tametla'''
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| | '''tamenam'''
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| | '''tamena'am'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tamekam'''
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| | '''tametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''3pl''
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| | '''kamena'''
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| | '''kameta'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''kametla'''
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| | '''kamenam'''
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| | '''kamena'am'''
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| | '''kametam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''kametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''4pl''
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| | '''tlamena'''
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| | '''tlameta'''
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| | '''tlameha'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tlamenam'''
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| | '''tlamena'am'''
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| | '''tlametam'''
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| | '''tlamekam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| |}
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| === Reflexives and Reciprocals === | | === Reflexives and Reciprocals === |
Reflexives and Reciprocals
Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –i, when added to verbs it is –ki, from ki meaning “self; essence”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –nku, , from anku meaning “reciprocate; [in] return”.
- 1s.REFL injure-PST
- I hurt myself.
- 3s.REFL bathe
- She bathes herself.
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- 3pl.RECP parent-ACC 1s.GEN love
- My parents love each other.
- 1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG
- We (but not you) are not able to like each other.
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In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -li (“each; every”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
- fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST
- Each one of the warriors killed himself.
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- 3pl.RECP fight-AG-each-ACC kill-REFL-PST
- The warriors killed each other [and nobody survived].
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Determiners & Demostratives
The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show deixis. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between proximal or first person (objects near to the speaker), medial or second person (objects near to the addressee), and distal or third person (objects far from both).
- itla (i-) - this (near me)
- uatla (ua-) - that (near you)
- yetla (ye-) - that (over there)
Examples:
- imitami - PROX-dog-few - These few dogs
- yemitampa - DIST-dog-many - Those many dogs (over there)
- uamitali - MED-dog-each - Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)
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Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
- kua (-kua) - all; every; whole
- oli (-li) - each; every
- ula (-la) - whatever; any; some
- mi (-mi) - few; little
- nke (-k) - none
- mpa (-mpa) - many; much; a lot
- maha - more; plus
- ohi - less; fewer
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Correlatives
correlatives
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Proximal
i-
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Medial
ua-
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Distal
ye-
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Inclusive
-kua
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Negative
-k
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Indefinite
-la
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mo
(place)
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hina
here |
uana
there |
yemua
over there |
mokua
everywhere |
mok
nowhere |
mola
somewhere; anywhere
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ko
(person)
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iko
this person |
uako
that person |
yeko
that person
(over there) |
tlokua
everyone |
tlok
no one |
kola
someone; anyone
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uku
(amount)
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iku
this much |
uaku
that much |
- |
kua
all; every |
ok
none |
ula
some; any
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ama
(time)
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ima
now, at present |
uama
then; at that time |
- |
kuama
always |
amak
never |
tlama
sometime; anytime
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so
(kind, type)
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iso
this kind |
so'o
that kind |
yeso
that kind
(over there) |
sokua
all kinds |
sok
no kind (at all) |
sola
some/any kind
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no
(thing)
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itla
this |
uatla
that |
yetla
that
(over there) |
nokua
everything |
nok
nothing; none |
nola
something; anything
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to
(manner, way)
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yoto
thus; like this; this way |
uato
that way |
ato
that way
(over there) |
tokua
every way |
tok
no way |
tola
somehow; anyway
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Syntax
- akana.conlang.org/wiki/Delta_Naidda
Basic Word Order
The default word order in Kala is SOV, although case marking allows some flexibility.
- dog man-ACC bite-PST
- The dog bit the man.
Derivation
Gemination
Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
Sample
Lexicon
