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= Phonology = | = Phonology = | ||
== Consonants == | == Consonants == | ||
Revision as of 19:06, 7 December 2020
Phonology
Consonants
- Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m (m) | n (n) | ɲ (ny) | |||
| Plosive | p~b (p) | t~d (t) | k~g (k) | ʔ ( ' ) | ||
| Affricate | ts~t͡ʃ (ts) | t͡ɬ~tl (tl) | ||||
| Continuant | s~ʃ (s) | l~ɾ (l) | h~ɦ (h) | |||
| Semivowel | j (y) | w (u) | ||||
The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
- Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
- Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
- Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
Free variation
Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
Sound Changes
The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
Vowels
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | i~ɪ (i) | u~ʊ (u) |
| Mid | e~ɛ (e) | o~o: (o) |
| Open | a~ɑ (a) | |
Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
Diphthongs
Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.
Phonotactics
The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.
Syllables
Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).
Syllable Chart
| a | e | i | o | u | ua | ue | ya | ye | yo | ai | ao | uai | yao | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| p | (m)pa | (m)pe | (m)pi | (m)po | (m)pu | pua | pue | pya | pye | pyo | pai | pao | puai | pyao |
| t | (n)ta | (n)te | (n)ti | (n)to | tai | tao | ||||||||
| k | (n)ka | (n)ke | (n)ki | (n)ko | (n)ku | kua | kue | kya | kye | kyo | kai | kao | kuai | kyao |
| m | ma | me | mi | mo | mu | mua | mue | mya | mye | myo | mai | mao | muai | myao |
| n | na | ne | ni | no | nu | nua | nue | nya | nye | nyo | nai | nao | nuai | nyao |
| s | sa | se | si | so | su | sua | sue | sai | sao | suai | ||||
| h | ha | he | hi | ho | hu | hua | hue | hya | hye | hyo | hai | hao | huai | hyao |
| ts | tsa | tse | tsi | tso | tsu | tsua | tsue | tsai | tsao | tsuai | ||||
| tl | tla | tle | tli | tlo | tlai | tlao | ||||||||
| l | la | le | li | lo | lai | lao | ||||||||
| - | a | e | i | o | u | ua | ue | ya | ye | yo | ai | ao | uai | yao |
Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.
Collating Order
The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.
| Consonants | p | t | k | m | n | s | h | ts | tl | l |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vowels | a | e | i | o | u | ua | ue | ya | ye | yo |
Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.
Stress
Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
- masa - /ˈmaːsa/ → masako - /maːˈsako/
- tliyama - /tɬiːˈjama/ → tliyamalo - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
- kam - /kaːm/ → kamyo - /ˈkaːmʲo/
- empahapak - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → empahapayek - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
Morphology
Verbs
Nouns
Number
In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the Kala sentence mita ha'o a "dog three exist" keeps the word mita "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant. The collective plural is marked by tli-, derived from tatli, meaning "group; collection; gathering". It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL). There are also markers for paucal (a few of something), distributive (each of a countable group), or inclusive, and an indefinite large number (many, much).
| Kala | gloss | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular [SG] | mita | dog | a/the dog |
| Plural [PL] | mita-m | dog-PL | (the) dogs |
| Paucal [PAU] | mita-mi | dog-PAU | (a) few dogs |
| Collective [COL] | tli-mita | COL-dog | (a) dog pack |
| Distributive [DIS] | mita-li [or -kua] | dog-DIS/INCL | each/every dog |
| Indefinite Mass [IM] | mita-mpa | dog-IM | many dogs |
These endings can sometimes be combined to add nuance to the meaning, such as; tlimitam - COL-dog-PL - dog packs / packs of dogs; imitalin malo - PROX-dog-DIS-ACC be.brown – each of these dogs is brown
When the final syllable of a word contains a labial consonant, ‘m’, ‘mp’, and ‘p’ the plural marking changes to -lo. The –lo ending is also used when the word begins with a vowel, and when the –m ending conflicts phonotactically with a given case suffix. An example of this would be; yama - mountain - a mountain → yamalo - mountain-PL – mountains → tliyama - COL-mountain - a mountain range / range of mountains → tliyamalo - COL-mountain-PL - mountain ranges / ranges of mountains.
Reduplication
Nominal reduplication in Kala indicates a plurality and that the items are scattered about in a disorderly manner. It can also indicate uncountable version of a countable noun. Occasionally, it reflects a juvenile or informal register; in this respect, it can be compared to the English diminutive ending "-y" or "-ie" (kitty, “doggie", etc.) Verb reduplication is also common in Kala as it marks adverbs. Often, this adverb is an informal and/or temporary character of the action. It may also indicate a nominal form of the verb.
- kya o’unkonke - IMP be.loud-NEG - Don’t speak loudly!
The morphological process of reduplication is irregular in Kala and is based primarily on the initial syllable of the word. The nasals (N), plosives (P), affricates (A), continuants (C), and semivowels and vowels (S) each undergo various changes during reduplication.
- N → N/(y/u)
- muku - knife → mumuku – knives scattered around
- muela - raspberry → memuela – raspberries scattered around / a bunch of raspberries
- nyahi - snow → nanyahi – snow all around
- P → nP/(y/u) or nP → P/(y/u)
- pana - rain → pampana – rain all around (“It’s raining all over.”)
- ntasi – excitement → ntatasi – chaotic fits
- kano – dear; darling → kankano – “sweetie; lovey”
- kyo’a – be quiet → konko’a – quietly
- A → C/(y/u)
- tloso – annoy; bother → tloloso – bothersome
- tsima – hour → tsisima – hourly; regularly
- tsuama – sandwich → tsasuama – sandwiches scattered about / a sandwich tray
- C → ~/(y/u) [mostly s → ts and h → k]
- sama - sun → satsama – sunny; sunshine all around
- suku - shop → sutsuku – marketplace; bazaar
- hama – protect; defend → hakama – protective
- S → ‘u or ~
- ima – now; yet → i’uma – immediately [sounds like /ˈjuːma/]
- ampi – mucus; snot; snivel → a'umpi – a runny nose; snively
Case
Case is marked with suffixes. The regular forms of the case markers are given in the list below. Case is marked on noun phrases using null marking for agents, and -n for patients. The clitic -n can appear on multiple noun phrases in a single sentence at once, such as the direct object, indirect object, and adverbial nouns.
| Case | Suffix | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative [NOM] |
-Ø | yona (the/a) book |
| Accusative [ACC] |
-n | yonan (the/a) book [dir. object/patient] |
| Genitive [GEN] |
-yo | yonayo of, belonging to (the/a) book |
| Dative [DAT] |
-la | yonala for, to, at (the/a) book [indir. object/patient] |
| Locative [LOC] |
-hue | yonahue in, on, at (the/a) book |
| Ablative [ABL] |
-nte / -uai | yonante from, of (the/a) book |
| Comitative [COM] |
-mua | yonamua with, by, via, using (the/a) book |
| Abessive [ABE] |
-mue | yonamue without (the/a) book |
| Terminative [TERM] |
-mpe | yonampe up to, just, only (the/a) book |
The nominative [NOM] is not marked [-Ø] and is in the absolutive form. It indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer. The accusative is marked with the clitic -n (from no - thing; object) and indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as Oblique [OBL] occasionally), instrument, or experiencer. The genitive -yo (from yoha - have; possess) indicates inalienable association or possession, whereas the particle te (of; from)indicates alienable association or possession and is roughly equivalent to the ablative case. The dative/(al)lative -la (from yala - go; walk) indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object. The locative -hue indicates location or circumstance, and can be used to indicate the durative for stative verb constructions. The ablative -nte (from te - of; from) / -uai (from uaye - from out of/away) indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location. The comitative/instrumental/inclusive/coordinative -mua (from mua - with; (be) together) indicates instrument, or in company of something. The abessive -mue indicates the lack or absence of something, it is roughly analogous to the English suffix -less. The terminative/limitative -mpe (from amye - be alone; final) indicates the extent, finality, or limit of a thing.
Postpositional Verbs
In addition to the case system, there are several pospositional stative verbs. These are used interchangeably as pospositions and/or serial verbs.
Locational
|
Relational
|
Temporal
|
- mita ina naye uakatsu te keya ue'o yahe hayo yempa taheye
- dog eat while bovine.flesh of gram ten amount.of 3sg.GEN table be.under-PST
- The dog was under the table while eating his 10 grams of beef.
Gender
Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings -na and -ta to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as naka, tlaka, nahi, or tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc. A gender neutral suffix, -nta may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
- kuma - bear - a bear → kumana - bear-FEM - sow → kumata - bear-MASC - boar
- masa - deer - a deer → masana - deer-FEM - doe → masata - deer-MASC - stag
- uma - horse - a horse → umana - horse-FEM - mare → umata - horse-MASC - stallion
Pronouns and Determiners
Kala agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun na'am is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc.
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Personal pronouns:
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Modifiers:
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Other pronouns include:
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| Agent | Patient | Reflexive | Possessive | Reciprocal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | na | ena | na'i | nayo | - |
| 2sg | ta | eta | ta'i | tayo | - |
| 3sg | ha | eha | ha'i | hayo | - |
| 4sg | tla | etla | tla'i | tlayo | - |
| 1pl 1pl exclusive |
nam na'am |
enam ena'am |
nami na'ami |
namyo na'amyo |
nanku na'anku |
| 2pl | tam | etam | tami | tamyo | tanku |
| 3pl | kam | ekam | kami | kamyo | kanku |
| 4pl | tlam | etlam | tlami | tlamyo | tlanku |
Pronominal constructions
The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -e-.
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| A/P | 1sg | 2sg | 3sg | 4sg | 1pl | 1pl.EXCL | 2pl | 3pl | 4pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | - | neta | neha | netla | - | - | netam | nekam | netlam |
| 2sg | tena | - | teha | tetla | tenam | tena'am | - | tekam | tetlam |
| 3sg | hena | heta | - | hetla | henam | hena'am | hetam | - | hetlam |
| 4sg | tlena | tleta | tleha | - | tlenam | tlena'am | tletam | tlekam | - |
| 1pl | - | nameta | nameha | nametla | - | - | nametam | namekam | nametlam |
| 1pl.EXCL | - | na'ameta | na'ameha | na'ametla | - | - | na'ametam | na'amekam | na'ametlam |
| 2pl | tamena | - | tameha | tametla | tamenam | tamena'am | - | tamekam | tametlam |
| 3pl | kamena | kameta | - | kametla | kamenam | kamena'am | kametam | - | kametlam |
| 4pl | tlamena | tlameta | tlameha | - | tlamenam | tlamena'am | tlametam | tlamekam | - |
Reflexives and Reciprocals
Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –i, when added to verbs it is –ki, from ki meaning “self; essence”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –nku, , from anku meaning “reciprocate; [in] return”.
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In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -li (“each; every”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
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Determiners & Demostratives
The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show deixis. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between proximal or first person (objects near to the speaker), medial or second person (objects near to the addressee), and distal or third person (objects far from both).
Examples:
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Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
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Correlatives
| Proximal i- |
Medial ua- |
Distal ye- |
Inclusive -kua |
Negative -k |
Indefinite -la | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| mo (place) |
hina here |
uana there |
yemua over there |
mokua everywhere |
mok nowhere |
mola somewhere; anywhere |
| ko (person) |
iko this person |
uako that person |
yeko that person (over there) |
tlokua everyone |
tlok no one |
kola someone; anyone |
| uku (amount) |
iku this much |
uaku that much |
- | kua all; every |
ok none |
ula some; any |
| ama (time) |
ima now, at present |
uama then; at that time |
- | kuama always |
amak never |
tlama sometime; anytime |
| so (kind, type) |
iso this kind |
so'o that kind |
yeso that kind (over there) |
sokua all kinds |
sok no kind (at all) |
sola some/any kind |
| no (thing) |
itla this |
uatla that |
yetla that (over there) |
nokua everything |
nok nothing; none |
nola something; anything |
| to (manner, way) |
yoto thus; like this; this way |
uato that way |
ato that way (over there) |
tokua every way |
tok no way |
tola somehow; anyway |
Syntax
- akana.conlang.org/wiki/Delta_Naidda
Basic Word Order
The default word order in Kala is SOV, although case marking allows some flexibility.
- mita tlakan yatsiye
- dog man-ACC bite-PST
- The dog bit the man.
Derivation
Gemination
Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
