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Pronunciation table

पेमुकॊ peműko (labial)								रीस़ुकॊ riisűko (dental)								मुइतुकॊ muitűko (alveolar)								भइनुकॊ vainűko (palatal)							ज़ूऀस़ेँनॊस़् ṡ̨uuše̋nos (vowels)								निथॊ ज़ूऀस़ेँनॊस़् nı̋þo ṡ̨uuše̋nos (weak vowels)
p	b	f	v	m̃	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			š	s̨			i	e	a	ǫ	o	u			ĭ	ĕ	ŭ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/sʷ/	/sʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

Glossing abbreviations

1s/p = 1st person singular/plural	ABL = ablative suffix	COL = collective	F = feminine	INT = intensive prefix	PRV = privative prefix	SUP = supine
2s/p = 2nd person singular/plural	ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)	DES = desiderative	FRQ = frequentative	LAT = lative suffix	PST = past	TRZ = transitivizer
3 = 3rd person	ADV = adverb	DIM = diminutive	FUT = future	LOC = locative suffix	REV = reversive	VOC = vocative particle
A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)	AG = agent	ELIS = elision	IMP = imperative	M = masculine	Q = interrogative particle
G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)	AP = agent (active) participle	ELT = elative	INC = inchoative	OCC = occupation suffix	QUOT = direct quotation
N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)	AUG = augmentative	EP = epenthesis	IND = indicative	PP = patient (past) participle	RPR = recent perfective
V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)	CAUS = causative	EQU = equative degree	INS = instrument	PRF = perfect	SBJ = subjunctive

Postposition

• 1. ȝóba - near or next to
• His house is by the river.
• eȝu-m̃e̋e̋so daae̋s ȝóba e̋sa:

eȝu=m̃e̋e̋s-o	daa-e̋s	ȝóba	e̋s-a
his=house-N.s	river-G.s	by	be-IND

• 2. dúna - at some time before (the given time), or before the end of a given time interval
• We have to be back by Sunday.
• m̃us ilmaha̋s dúna na̋a̋nu ke̋la:

m̃-us	ilm-ah-a̋s	dúna	na̋a̋n-u	ke̋l-a
1p-N	Ilmu-day-G.s	by	return-SUP	must-IND

• 3. móóda - the instrument in a clause with its verb in the passive voice: through the action or presence of
• The shepherd was protected from the rain by his rain cape.
• om̃ta̋ðlu suum̃e̋s þóósa eȝu-ðuukuurős móóda m̃űűraþu e-ı̋la:

om̃ta̋ðl-u	suum̃-e̋s	þóósa	eȝu=ðuu-kuur-ős	kía	m̃űűr-a-þ-u	e=ı̋l-a
shepherd-N.s	rain-G.s	from	his=storm-cape-G.s	by	protect-IND-PP-N.s	PST=become-IND

• 4. móóda - a means: involving/using the means of
• We can avoid the rapids by crossing at the ford.
• m̃us m̃aðős éna ta̋ru móóda kőskom t̨e̋gu ma̋ƣa:

m̃-us	m̃að-ős	éna	ta̋r-u	móóda	kősk-om	t̨e̋g-u	ma̋ƣ-a
1p-N	ford-G.s	at	cross-SUP	by	rapids-A.s	avoid-SUP	be.able-IND

• 5. kía - the creator of a work
• This poem was written by that little girl.
• i-m̃e̋lo pı̋nu a-neskűs kía ȝa̋raþo e-ı̋la:

i=m̃e̋l-o	pı̋nu-Ø	a=nesk-űs	kía	ȝa̋r-a-þ-o	e=ı̋l-a
this=poem-N.s	little-ABS	that=girl-G.s	by	write-IND-PP-N.s	PST=become-IND

• 6. ha - the cause of a condition or event: through the action of, caused by, responsibility for; by dint of
• The army was prevented by the snow from leaving the base.
• őmu tom̃ős ha voutı̋ȝom vı̋du áfa sa̋baþu e-ı̋la:

őm-u	tom̃-ős	ha	voutı̋ȝ-om	vı̋d-u	áfa	sa̋b-a-þ-u	e=ı̋l-a
army-N.s	snow-G.s	by	base-A.s	leave-SUP	from	prevent-IND-PP-N.s	PST=become-IND

• 7. f̨óþa - using a source of light
• The hunter saw the deer by the light of the moon.
• ve̋e̋ðlu eide̋s f̨óþa e̋inem e-na̋ka:

ve̋e̋ðl-u	eid-e̋s	f̨óþa	e̋in-em	e=na̋k-a
hunter-N.s	moon-G.s	by.the.light.of	deer-A.s	PST=see-IND

• 8. dása - an authority, rule, or permission followed.
• The land was sold by the court.
• na̋a̋lo meðsedős dása fa̋a̋raþo e-ı̋la:

na̋a̋l-o	með-sed-ős	dása	fa̋a̋r-a-þ-o	e=ı̋l-a
land-N.s	judge-seat-G.s	on.the.authority.of	sell-IND-PP-N.s	PST=become-IND

• 9. mém̃a - in the formulae "X by/after X" and "by Xs", indicates a steady progression, one X after another.
• Day by day, for five years, they worked in the fields.
• éȝus a̋ham aha̋s mém̃a pe̋n dı̋lan gazőm éna e-da̋a̋ra:

éȝ-us	a̋h-am	ah-a̋s	mém̃a	pe̋n	dı̋l-an	gaz-őm	éna	e=da̋a̋r-a
3-N.p	day-A.s	day-G.s	by	five	year-A.p	field-G.p	in	PST=work-IND

• 10. épa - according to.
• By his own admission the boy burned the stable.
• hűsu pa̋ta eȝu-żeena̋s épa dődom e-a̋iða:

hűs-u	pa̋ta-Ø	eȝu-żeen-a̋s	épa	dőd-om	e=a̋ið-a
boy-N.s	own-ABS	his-admission-G.s	by	stable-A.s	PST=burn-IND

• 11. óita - indicates an oath: in the name of.
• By all the stars above, I will do it.
• mu űpe ṡuke̋m óita éȝom u-kı̋a:

m-u	űpe-Ø	ṡuk-e̋m	óita	n-om	u=kı̋-a
1s-N	above-ABS	star-G.p	by	it-A.s	FUT=do-IND

• 12. nóóla - separates dimensions when describing the size of something
• The farmer's east pasture measures three kilometers by four.
• zǫðlűs auste̋ro le̋sm̃o na̋a̋l venhőm nóóla tı̋r ve̋nhon me̋a:

zǫðl-űs	auste̋ro-Ø	le̋sm̃-o	na̋a̋l	venh-őm	nóóla	tı̋r	ve̋nh-on	me̋-a
farmer-G.s	east-ABS	pasture-N.s	four	kilometer-G.p	by	three	kilometer-A.p	measure-IND

Adverb

• 13. ǫ́nu - along a path which runs by the speaker
• The women watched as the soldiers rode by.
• ǧe̋nus e-ge̋þa—méti sőþlus ǫ́nu e-mı̋ma:

ǧe̋n-us	e=ge̋þ-a	méti	sőþl-us	ǫ́nu	e=mı̋m-a
woman-N.p	PST=watch-IND	as	soldier-N.p	by	PST=ride-IND

• 14. kómu - in the vicinity, near
• The father stood by as his son swam in the lake.
• ta̋a̋ta kómu e-ṡűra—méti eȝu-pőiku ehe̋rom éna e-še̋ma:

ta̋a̋t-a	kómu	e=ṡűr-a	méti	eȝu=pőik-u	ehe̋r-om	éna	e=še̋m-a
father-N.s	by	PST=stand-IND	as	his=son-N.s	lake-A.s	in	PST=swim-IND

• 15. énu - to or at a place, as a residence or place of business
• We'll stop by after work.
• m̃us daara̋s pósa én' u-de̋usa:

m̃-us	daar-a̋s	pósa	én-'	u=de̋us-a
1p-N	word-G.s	after	by-ELIS	FUT=stop-IND

Senjecas - ever-forever