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| : <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small> | | : <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small> |
| : ''The children are playing outside of the house.'' | | : ''The children are playing outside of the house.'' |
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| = Word formation =
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| == Compounding ==
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| New nouns are usually created through head-initial compounding, using both nominal and verbal stems as the second, dependent element of the compound. The resulting lexical entries usually behave as single phonological words, which, however, have four full syllables: '''kuatlatloha''' "grass snake". Compounding of more than two elements is not common.
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| * '''kayapusu''' - "earthquake" > '''kaya''' - earth + '''pusu''' - vibrate
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| * '''asuaseka''' - "leather" > '''asua''' - skin + '''seka''' - dry
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| There are also numerous [[Kala/affixes|'''affixes''']] used to form new meanings. A few examples are;
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| * '''tiyasu''' - "bakery" > '''tiya''' - bread + '''-su''' - market; shop
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| * '''onyomo''' - "school" > '''onyo''' - learn + '''-mo''' - place; location
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| * '''kuhasa''' - "kitchen" > '''kuha''' - cook + '''-sa''' - room; chamber
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| * '''pyetampu''' - "egg-shaped" > '''pyeta''' - egg + '''-mpu''' - shape; form
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| == Derivation ==
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| === Verbalization ===
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| Causative verbs (as well as achievement verbs) can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mya|-'''mya''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''muya''']] - ''"do, make, cause"'') or [[Kala/affixes#la|-'''la''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ela''']] - ''"become; change into; turn into"''). This type of derivation is fairly common; however, verbs created in this way are syntactically defective and tend to appear only in serial verb constructions.
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| * '''tinamya''' - "bend" < '''tina''' - be bent
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| * '''pitamya''' - "hollow out" < '''pita''' - be hollow; void
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| * '''enomya''' - "annoy, bother" < '''eno''' - be angry
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| * '''tsipuela''' - "slow down" < '''tsipue''' - be slow
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| * '''kyolola''' - "speed up" < '''kyolo''' - be quick
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| Intensive verbs can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mpa|-'''mpa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#mpa|'''mpa''']] - ''"many; much; very"''), or more commonly [[Kala/affixes#hu|-'''hu''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''kyohu''']] - ''"be drastic; extreme; aggressive"'').
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| * '''ketsahu''' - "dismiss, reject, repudiate" < '''ketsa''' - doubt
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| * '''amyampa''' - "fall in love with" < '''amya''' - be fond of; like; prefer (of people)
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| Adjective-like stative verbs which name an associated quality may be formed from nouns by [[Kala/affixes#n|-'''n''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#na|'''no''']] - ''"thing" (-ish, -ly, -ous)'').
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| * '''timan''' - "be cruel, be bloody" < '''tima''' - blood
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| * '''amyan''' - "be welcoming, be hospitable" < '''amya''' - be fond of
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| === Nominalization ===
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| ==== Agentive ====
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| Nouns referring to a human subject of a verb (''usually in a habitual sense'') can be formed with the agentive suffix [[Kala/affixes#ko|-'''ko''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''ko''']] - ''"individual; person"''). This suffix changes to '''-tlo''' when a [[wp:Velar_stop|velar stop]] is present in the preceding syllable.
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| * '''kitlako''' - "craftsman" < '''kitla''' - create; invent; make-up
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| * '''sutako''' - "inhabitant (of)" < '''suta''' - live; reside; dwell; inhabit; settle
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| * '''yekatlo''' - "unmarried young adult" < '''yeka''' - be separate, be on one's own
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| * '''makatlo''' - "musician" < '''maka''' - music; play ~; tune
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| * '''tsaniko''' - "storyteller" < '''tsani''' - recite, tell (a story)
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| ==== Instrumental ====
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| Instrument nouns and names for tools and other inanimates can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#nyo|-'''nyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mayo''']] - ''"device; equipment; tool"'').
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| * '''hitanyo''' - "atlatl (spear-thrower)" < '''hita''' - throw; cast; expel
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| * '''amonyo''' - "handle (for carrying)" < '''amo''' - transport; carry
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| * '''kusunyo''' - "clasp, brooch, fibula" < '''kusu''' - squeeze
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| * '''toponyo''' - "lock" < '''topo''' - door; gate
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| ==== Locative ====
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| Location nouns can be formed from both nouns and verbs by several suffixes. These indicate specific places where either something happens, or something resides there are a few affixes which modify both verbs and nouns.
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| [[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mo''']] - ''"location; place; site"''). This suffix is used to form the general idea of where something happens or resides.
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| * '''tanamo''' - "battlefield; boxing ring; wrestling mat, etc." < '''tana''' - fight; combat
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| * '''uelomo''' - "bicycle-place; bike path; bike rack, etc." < '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
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| * '''inamo''' - "eat-place; dining room; restaurant" [This can also mean food-place; pantry, etc.] < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''onyomo''' - "learn-place; school" < '''onyo''' - learn; study
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| [[Kala/affixes#su|-'''su''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''suku''']] - ''"market; shop; store"''). This suffix is used to specify a business where items are produced and/or sold.
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| * '''tiyasu''' - "bread-shop; bakery" < '''tiya''' - bread
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| * '''inasu''' - "food-market; grocery store; restaurant" < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''uelosu''' - "bicycle-shop" < '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
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| [[Kala/affixes#kyo|-'''kyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ha|'''hakyo''']] - ''"college; school; university"''). This suffix is used to specify a location where students learn. This can also be used to indicate a school of thought, or ideology.
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| * '''tanakyo''' - "dojo; martial arts training academy; etc." < '''tana''' - fight; combat
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| * '''kuhakyo''' - "culinary-school; chef’s academy" < '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
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| * '''tsiyakyo''' - "liberalism" < '''tsiya''' - freedom; liberty
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| * '''ya'akyo''' - "medical-school" < '''ya'a''' - medicine; drug; cure
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| [[Kala/affixes#sa|-'''sa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''sala''']] - ''"chamber; room; section"''). This is more specific than
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| [[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] and used primarily for spaces inside buildings.
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| * '''kuhasa''' - "cook-room; kitchen" < '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
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| * '''mokusa''' - "sleep-room; bedroom" < '''moku''' - sleep; rest
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| * '''inasa''' - "eat-room; dining room" < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''onyosa''' - "learn-room; classroom" < '''onyo''' - learn; study
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| ==== Diminutive ====
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| Diminutive nouns and endearment terms can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#hi|-'''hi''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ahi''']] - ''"few; small"''). This becomes '''-ki''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
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| * '''mukuhi''' - "blade" < '''muku''' - knife
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| * '''umahi''' - "foal" < '''uma''' - horse; equine
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| * '''mitahi''' - "puppy" < '''mita''' - dog; canine
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| * '''ohuaki''' - "indulgence" < '''ohua''' - luxurious; extravagant
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| ==== Augmentative ====
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| Augmentative nouns can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#ha|-'''ha''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ta|'''taha''']] - ''"big; large; grand"''). This becomes '''-ka''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
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| * '''kamaha''' - "city" < '''kama''' - village; town
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| * '''ohaka''' - "dislocate one's jaw" < '''oha''' - yawn; open one's mouth
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| * '''mosaha''' - "epic; novel" < '''mosa''' - book; letter; scroll
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| * '''tiniha''' - "hurricane" < '''tini''' - spiral; whorl
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| ==== Honorific ====
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| Honorific nouns can be formed from other nouns by prefixing [[Kala/affixes#o|'''o'''-]].
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| * '''omasa''' - "stag" < '''masa''' - deer; cervine
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| * '''okama''' - "capital" < '''kama''' - town; village
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| = Syntax = | | = Syntax = |
Orthography
- Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, this page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
Morphology
Kala is a mostly agglutinative language that makes extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, it can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed, and a single word can sometimes constitute an entire sentence.
Verbs
Stative verbs
A large proportion of intransitive verbs are stative verbs, taking over the role of English adjectives. Examples are taha "be big" and ahi "be small". This type of verb is most often used in non-predicative situations, performing an adjective-like function. With intransitive verbs it describes the subject; with transitive verbs it usually describes the patient or theme and is thus roughly comparable to a passive participle in meaning. Essentially, Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives.
Relative
In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix -tle (or -le if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns who, what, which, where are not used in Kala as in English.
- yalapa - to be able to walk produces: yalapatle - who/which/that can walk
- yalapak - to not be able to walk produces: yalapanketle - who/which/that can't walk
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This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
- na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya
- 1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know
- I know the man who is coming to lunch.
- O woman sweep-REL young
- The woman who is sweeping is young.
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The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative -k.
- PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL
- This is the house in which I live.
- PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG
- This is the house in which I did not live.
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Adpositionals
Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:
- pahe - against; touching
- pa'e - apart from; other than; except for
- paye - beyond; exceeding; farther than
- pue - after; back; behind; rear
- tahe - below; beneath; under
- ka'e - to; towards; at [moving toward]
- kaye - around; encircling; surrounding
- mahe - around; approximate; close to
- ma'a - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
- ma'e - before; in front
- maye - between; among
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- nahe - in [located inside of]; internal
- nyaue - outside of; exterior to
- sahe - across; opposite; other side
- saye - along; following [a line]
- hue / -hue - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
- tsa'e - across; through
- ua'e - above; over / on
- uaye - from [moving out of or away from]
- ya'e - near; close to
- yomo - to the right of
- yoso - to the left of
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- 1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL
- I can see a tree on the hill.
- child-PL outside.of house play
- The children are playing outside of the house.
Syntax
Simple sentences
Reflexives and reciprocals
Kala has reflexive and reciprocal pronoun forms, and as such declarative phrases are regular and predictable.
- 1sg.REFL injure-PST
- I hurt myself.
- 3sg.REFL bathe
- She bathes herself.
- 3pl.RECP O parent 1sg.POSS love
- My parents love each other.
- 1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG
- We (but not you) are not able to like each other.
Complex sentences
Clause coordination
Clause-level conjunctions such as ku "and", ua "or", or ehe "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.
- boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent
- The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.
- ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai
- now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM
- Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.
Coordination of noun phrases
Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction ma "and" (sometimes "with").
- yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya
- day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see
- I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.
- kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya
- squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make
- The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.
- mother and father fornicate-RECP
- Mother and father have sex [with each other].
- ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli
- 2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT
- You and I will go to the forest together.
Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction ua "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction ue "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.
- ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo
- 2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM
- You may eat an apple or a pear.
- tsola ue otso itsikua mataye
- fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST
- It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.
Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with ehe "but; however" (or me more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.
- yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya
- day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive
- The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.
- 1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know
- I know this man, but not this woman.
Complement clauses
Relative clauses
Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -tle (or -le if the last syllable has tl). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:
- na ka naka amyatle pesoue
- 1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL
- I want to meet a girl who is friendly.
- naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua
- sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV
- My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.
- kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli
- 3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT
- They who fight well will defeat the enemy.
