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| === Interjections === | | === Interjections === |
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| = Basic syntax =
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
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| AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
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| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
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| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
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| == Simple sentences ==
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| === Intransitive clauses ===
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| Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
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| * '''nta'i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby sleeps.''
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| * '''mita ina'''
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| : <small>dog eat</small>
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| : ''The dog eats.''
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| * '''sama nala'''
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| : <small>sun shine</small>
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| : ''The sun shines.''
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| * '''kamahi ke naha ya'e'''
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| : <small>town-DIM O river be.near</small>
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| : ''There is a village near the river.''
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| * '''ke apua muyapua'''
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| : <small>O song do-PFV</small>
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| : ''The song has been sung.''
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| === Transitive clauses ===
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| Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.
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| * '''ona ke matla kuha'''
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| : <small>mother O stew cook</small>
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| : ''The mother is cooking stew.''
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| * '''tasako ke masala yake'''
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| : <small>hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase</small>
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| : ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
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| * '''kyali ke itohuatla peha'''
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| : <small>spear O tree-oak pierce</small>
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| : ''The spear pierces the oak tree.''
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| * '''tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata'''
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| : <small>hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill</small>
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| : ''The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.''
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| === Predication ===
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| Nominal predicates are formed with the copula '''a''', using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.
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| * '''tsola ke haya a'''
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| : <small>fox O animal COP</small>
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| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (grammatical)
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| * '''tsola haya'''
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| : <small>fox animal</small>
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| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (idiomatic)
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| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo a'''
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| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP</small>
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| : ''This man is my husband.'' (grammatical)
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| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo'''
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| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS</small>
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| : ''This man is my husband.'' (idiomatic)
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| === Oblique participants ===
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| Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.
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| ==== Dative and benefactive ====
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| Dative participants are marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
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| * '''ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta'''
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| : <small>child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give</small>
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| : ''The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.''
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| * '''ikema nya na tlahi'''
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| : <small>PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy</small>
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| : ''This task is easy for me.''
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| Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
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| * '''mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu'''
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| : <small>holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite</small>
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| : ''The shaman recites a story for the siblings.''
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| Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using '''nya''':
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| * '''tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye'''
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| : <small>enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST</small>
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| : ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
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| ==== Instrumental ====
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| ==== Comitative ====
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| ==== Locative ====
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| === Negation ===
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| Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix '''-k''' (or '''-nke'''), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like '''tlok ak''' (<small>AG-NEG COP-NEG</small>) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).
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| * '''intahi ke nok onyotlik'''
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| : <small>PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG</small>
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| : ''This child will learn nothing.''
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| * '''mita inyak'''
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| : <small>dog hunger-NEG</small>
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| : ''The dog is not hungry.''
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| The suffix '''-nke''' also marks the [[wp:Abessive_case|abessive]], meaning ''without, or lacking''.
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| * '''ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye'''
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| : <small>3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST</small>
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| : ''He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.''
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| === Interrogatives ===
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| There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
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| ==== Polar questions ====
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| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina'''
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| : <small>dog eat</small>
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| : ''The dog eats.''
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| * '''nta'i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
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| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
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| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
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| : ''You saw the elephant.''
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| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
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| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
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| : ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina ka'''
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| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
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| : ''Does the dog eat?''
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| * '''nta'i moku ka'''
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| : <small>baby sleep Q</small>
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| : ''Is the baby sleeping?''
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| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
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| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
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| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
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| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==== Content questions ====
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| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
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| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
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| : <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
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| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
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| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
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| : <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
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| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
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| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
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| * '''ko ta ka'''
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| : <small>person 2sg Q</small>
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| : ''Who are you?''
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| * '''itla ka'''
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| : <small>this Q</small>
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| : ''What is this?''
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| * '''to kihu ka'''
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| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
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| : ''What's the weather like?''
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| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ kanyo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| |-
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| ! object
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| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! person
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| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
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| |-
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| ! possession
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| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
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| |-
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| ! manner
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| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! place
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| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! reason
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| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! time
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| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! amount
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| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! which
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| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
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| |}
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| === Passives ===
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| === Reflexives and reciprocals ===
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| == Complex sentences ==
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| === Clause coordination ===
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| === Coordination of noun phrases ===
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| === Complement clauses ===
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| === Relative clauses ===
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| === Adverbial clauses ===
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| = Serial verb construction = | | = Serial verb construction = |
