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*Many lexical entries are inspired/influenced/borrowed by/from any number of natlangs
*Many lexical entries are inspired/influenced/borrowed by/from any number of natlangs


== Phonology ==
==Pronunciation==
 
=== consonants ===


* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[Wikipedia:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[Wikipedia:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.


*Plosives
===Vowels===


:'''p''' - [p~b] | '''t''' - [t~d] | '''k''' - [k~g] | ''' ' ''' - [?]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!'''Front'''
!'''Central'''
!'''Back'''
|-align=center
!'''Close'''
|{{IPA|i~i:}} '''(i)'''  || || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
|-align=center
!'''Mid'''
|{{IPA|e~e:}} '''(e)''' || || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
|-align=center
!'''Open'''
| || {{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)''' ||
|}


*Nasals
====Diphthongs====


:'''m''' - [m] | '''n''' - [n] | '''ny''' - [J]
=====falling=====


*Fricatives
*{{IPA|[aɪ~aɪ:]}} - '''ai'''
*{{IPA|[aʊ~aʊ:]}} - '''ao'''


:'''s''' - [s~S] | '''h''' - [h~h\]
=====rising=====


*Africates
*{{IPA|[wa~wa:]}} - '''ua'''
*{{IPA|[waɪ~waɪ:]}} - '''uai'''
*{{IPA|[ja~ja:]}} - '''ya'''
*{{IPA|[jaʊ~jaʊ:]}} - '''yao'''
*{{IPA|[je~je:]}} - '''ye'''
*{{IPA|[jo~jo:]}} - '''yo'''


:'''ts''' - [ts~tS] | '''tl''' - [tK]
===Consonants===


*Approximants
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! rowspan="2"|
! rowspan="2"|Labial
! colspan="2"|Dental
! rowspan="2"|Palatal
! colspan="2"|Velar
! rowspan="2"|Glottal
|-align=center
!<small>central</small>
!<small>lateral</small>
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>labial</small>
|-align=center
! Nasal
| {{IPA|m}} '''(m)'''
| {{IPA|n}} '''(n)'''
|
| {{IPA|ɲ}} '''(ny)'''
|
|
|
|-align=center
!Plosive
| {{IPA|p~b}} '''(p)'''
| {{IPA|t~d}} '''(t)'''
|
|
| {{IPA|k~g}} '''(k)'''
| {{IPA|kʷ~gʷ}} '''(ku)'''
| {{IPA|ʔ}} '''(')'''
|-align=center
!Fricative
|
| {{IPA|s}} '''(s)'''
|
| {{IPA|ʃ}} '''(s)'''
|
|
| {{IPA|h~ɦ}} '''(h)'''
|-align=center
!Affricate
|
| {{IPA|ts}} '''(ts)'''
| {{IPA|tɬ}} '''(tl)'''
| {{IPA|tʃ}} '''(ts)'''
|
|
|
|-align=center
! Approximant
|
|
| {{IPA|l~r}} '''(l)'''
| {{IPA|j}} '''(y)'''
|
| {{IPA|w}} '''(u)'''
|
|}


:'''u''' - [w] | '''l''' - [l] | '''y''' - [j]
====Prenasalized consonants====


=== vowels ===
* In Kala, almost every consonant can be [[Wikipedia:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalized]], but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,
:while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases  of [[Wikipedia:Syllabic_consonant|syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.


* '''a''' - /a~a:/ | '''e''' - /e~e:/ | '''i''' - /i~i:/ | '''o''' - /o~o:/ | '''u''' - /u~u:/
* '''mb''' /mp~mb/
:Example: '''mpaka''' /ˈmpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary / border / line
* '''nt''' /nt~nd/
:Example: '''ntama''' /ˈnta.ma/ - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
* '''nk''' /ŋk~ŋɡ/
:Example: '''nkapa''' /ˈŋka.pa/ - ''n'' - alcohol / grog


==== diphthongs ====
==Writing System==


* '''ya''' - /ja:/ | '''ye''' - /je:/ | '''yo''' - /jo:/ | '''ua''' - /wa:/ | '''ue''' - /we:/
''See'': [[Kala writing|Moya]]


* '''ai''' - /aI:/ | '''ao''' - /aU:/ | '''uai''' - /waI:/ | '''yao''' - /jaU:/
==Grammatical Principles==


=== phonotactics ===
* The grammar of [[Kala]] should be regarded as a guide indicating how grammatical distinctions of gender, number, tense/aspect, noun, verb and particles are made. I have adopted the Arab grammarian's division into three categories (1) Noun ['''no / ata'''] [[File:Naua no.png]] / [[File:Naua ata.png]], (2) Particle ['''peya'''] [[File:Naua peya.png]], (3) Verb ['''uati'''] [[File:Naua uati.png]]. [[Kala]] does not always follow European models. It discards all redundancies. In English we say “two boys came yesterday”; in [[Kala]] “two boy come yesterday” ['''ta’o tahi yomaye tala'''] it is clear that more than one boy is already indicated by ‘two,’ while ‘yesterday’ shows the time, or tense of the verb.


*'''Kala''' allows only a single consonant at the start or end of a syllable (the exception being prenasalization), and up to two consonants word medially across a syllable boundary.
==Word Order==
:'''l''' cannot appear as an onset, the glottal stop, ''' ' ''', only appears between vowels.


==== syllable structure ====
===Sentence===


* (N)(CV)(k, m, n)
* Basic word order is '''SOV''' and is invariable.
::Prenasalization primarily occurs with '''k''', '''t''' and '''p'''. (''See also'': [[Kala writing|Moya]])
-
* ''(subject) - (object) - (verb)''
:'''tlaka (ke) naka anya'''
:<tt>man (TOP) woman see</tt>
: The man sees the woman.
* ''(subject) - (verb)''
:'''nahi apuaye'''
:<tt>girl sing.PAST</tt>
: The girl sang. / The girl did sing.
* ''(subject) - (complement) - (verb)''
:'''ke ina manka a'''
:<tt>TOP food cold COP</tt>
: The food is cold.
* ''(subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)''
:'''ke naka tsa'e kama yalaye'''
:<tt>TOP woman through village walk.PAST</tt>
: The woman walked through the village.
* ''(subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (object) - (verb)''
:'''na'eta itla omena yeta'''
:<tt>1s.ACC.2s this apple give</tt>
: I give to you this apple.
::(''In this case, the prepositional phrase is replaced by the pronominal construction.'')
* ''(subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)''
:'''ta kima poto tayo tse'ek'''
:<tt>2s like photo 2s.POSS appear.NEG</tt>
: You do not look like your photo.


==== syllable stress ====
====Clauses====
*In addition to phrases, some sentences contain clauses, which resemble smaller sentences nested within the larger sentence.
:They can modify noun phrases, verb phrases, or the whole of the larger sentence.
-
* ''(subject) - (clause) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)''
:'''tlaka ke ko asaye hina ka'e nuyoku yalaye'''
:<tt>man CONJ live.PAST here to New York go.PAST</tt>
: The man who lived here went to New York.
* ''(subject) - (clause) - (verb)''
:'''na ke ha aya a omu'''
:<tt>1s CONJ 3s beautiful COP think</tt>
: I think that she is beautiful.


*'''Kala''' stress is  penultimate; that is, the next-to-last syllable of the word is stressed.
==Nouns==


== Grammar ==
=== Affect / Degree ===


=== word order ===
* The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''.
These are respectively realized as '''-ki''' and '''-ka''' when attached to a word that has a final syllable containing '''h''' or '''y'''.
:Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
:Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion


* The usual, declarative formal word order is ''subject noun phrase - (object noun phrase) - verb phrase''.
* These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
:Example : He/She is preparing food.
:Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
::'''ha ina yaso'''
::''3sg food prepare''


* The "indirect object" exists only in the form of a prepositional phrase, and follows the object noun phrase.
* In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
:Example : The woman gives the house to me.  
:Example : '''tahaka''' - bigger/biggest | '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' - His house is bigger than mine.
::'''naka ka'e na ke tsaka yeta'''
:Example : '''yanaha''' - more yellow/most yellow | '''ke huam tayo yanaha''' - Your flowers are the most yellow.
::''woman to 1S the house give''


:* This construction changes when both the subject (agent) and (indirect)/object (patient) are personal pronouns. In this case, the preposition/al (phrase) is unnecessary.
===Gender===
:Example : She gives the house to me.
::'''ha'ena ke tsaka yeta'''
::''3sg-TR-part-1sg a house give''


* A chart of the agent-patient transitivity constructions;
*In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings '''-ta''' and '''-na'''.
{| class="wikitable" border=1
:Example : '''nikata''' "a male dog", '''nikana''' "a female dog".
|+ '''A-P''' ''construction''
 
! !! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing'' !! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
=== Articles ===
|- align=center
 
! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
*There is only one article in '''Kala''', '''ke'''. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
|| '''-''' || na'eta || na'eha || '''-''' || na'etam || na'ekam
 
|- align=center
*It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
:Example : '''kama''' "village", '''ke kama''' "the/a village", '''ke kama'a''' "the villages"
|| ta'ena || '''-''' || ta'eha || ta'enam || '''-''' || ta'ekam
:Example : '''inahi''' "snack", '''ke inahi''' "the/a snack", '''ke inahim''' "the snacks"
|- align=center
 
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''  
===Number===
|| ha'ena || ha'eta || '''-''' || ha'enam || ha'etam || ha'ekam
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
|| '''-''' || nameta || nameha || '''-''' || nametam || namekam
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''  
|| tamena || '''-''' || tameha || tamenam || '''-''' || tamekam
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''  
|| kamena || kameta || kameha || kamenam || kametam || '''-'''
|-
|}


=== verbs ===
* Nouns are either singular, plural or collective.


==== tense ====
* Concrete nouns are pluralized by suffixing '''-m'''.
:Examples :  '''kono''' - stone > '''konom''' - stones | '''naka''' - woman > '''nakam''' - women


*The present tense is indicated by the basic form.
* When the last syllable of a word contains an '''m''', the plural is marked by reduplicating the final vowel.
:'''ha apua'''
:Examples : '''kama''' - village > '''kama'a''' - villages | '''teyemi''' - phrase > '''teyemi'i''' - phrases
:''3SG sing''
:He/She sings.


*The simple past tense is indicated by the suffix '''-ye'''.
* Collective (plural) nouns are marked by prefixing '''tli-'''.  
:'''ha apuaye'''
:Examples : '''tsaka''' - house > '''tlitsaka''' - neighborhood | '''yama''' - mountain > '''tliyama''' - mountain range
:''3SG sing-PAST''
:He/She sang.


*The simple future tense is indicated by the suffix '''-tli'''.
* Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
:'''ha apuatli'''
:Example : '''sahi''' - color > '''sahim''' - colors > '''sahi ya'o''' - five color(s)
:''3SG sing-FUT''
:He/She will sing.


*The tense may be left out if it is clearly indicated by another word in the same sentence, or when telling a story (the "historical" tense).
* Adjectives do not show plural agreement. However, when an adjective is used nominally, it can be pluralized.
:'''ha yomatli apua'''
:Example : '''nyeli''' - pink > '''nyelim''' - (the) pink (ones)
:''3SG day-FUT sing''
:He/She will sing tomorrow.


:'''ha semaye apua'''
===Names===
:''3SG week-PAST sing''
:He/She sang last week.


==== mood ====
===Noun Suffixes===


* Moods are indicated by affixes appended to verbs in all tenses.
==Pronouns==


*The negative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-k'''.
* [[Kala]] generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.  
:'''kam inak'''
There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
:''3PL eat-NEG''
:They are not eating. / They do not eat.


*The volitive mood is indicated by the suffix '''-ue''' (from '''ueha''' - to want, desire).
{| class="wikitable" border=1
:'''nam tsomaueye'''
|-
:''1PL smoke-VOL-PAST''
! !! ''Nominative'' !! ''Accusative'' !! ''Possessive'' !! ''Reflexive'' !! ''Reciprocal''
:We wanted to smoke.
|- align=center
! ''1S''
|| na || ena || nayo || na'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''2S''
|| ta || eta ||tayo || ta'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''3S''
|| ha || eha || hayo || ha'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''4S''
|| tla || etla || tlayo || tla'i || ''' '''  
|- align=center
! ''1P''
|| nam || enam || namyo || nami || nanku
|- align=center
! ''1P'' (EXCL)
|| na'am || ena'am || na'amyo || na'ami || na'anku
|- align=center
! ''2P''
|| tam || etam || tamyo || tami || tanku
|- align=center
! ''3P''
|| kam || ekam || kamyo || kami || kanku
|- align=center
! ''4P''  
|| tlam || etlam || tlamyo || tlami || tlanku
|-
|}


*The necessitative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-he''' (from '''heta''' - to need, require).
=== Correlative Pronouns ===
:'''ta simahetlik'''
:''2S sit-NEC-FUT-NEG''
:You will not need to sit.


*The abilitative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-pa''' (from '''pala''' - to be able).
{| class="wikitable" border=1
:'''na mokupa'''
|-
:''1S sleep-ABIL''
! !! ''query'' !! ''this'' !! ''that'' !! ''some'' !! ''none'' !! ''any'' !! ''every'' !! ''whichever''
:I can sleep. / I am able to sleep.
|- align=center
! ''adjective''
|| ka || itla || uatla || iha || ak || ula || kua || ote
|- align=center
! ''person''
|| ko...ka || iko || uako || ihako || hok || kola || kohua || oteko
|- align=center
! ''thing''  
|| no...ka || itla || uatla || ihano || nok || nola || nokua || oteno
|- align=center
! ''time''
|| ama/tsima...ka || ima || uama || ihama || amak || amala || kuama || otema
|- align=center
! ''place''
|| mo...ka || hina || uana || ihamo || mok || mola || mokua || otemo
|- align=center
! ''way''
|| to...ka || yoto || uato || ihato || tok || tola || tokua || oheto
|- align=center
! ''amount''  
|| ku/o...ka || iku || uaku || ihaku || huk/ok || kula || hukua/okua || oteku
|- align=center
! ''reason''  
|| nye...ka || inye || uanye || ihanye || nyek || ulanye || nyekua || otenye
|- align=center
! ''kind''  
|| su...ka || isu || uasu || ihasu || suk || sula || sukua || otesu
|-
|}


=== nouns ===
==Determiners==


==== affect/degree ====
==Pronouns==  


* The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''. These are respectively realized as '''-ki''' and '''-ka''' when attached to a word that has a final syllable containing '''h''' or '''y'''.
==Adjectives==
:Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
:Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion


* These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
==Adverbs==
:Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green


* In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
==Verbs==
:Example : '''tahaka''' - bigger/biggest | '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' - His house is bigger than mine.
:Example : '''yanaha''' - more yellow/most yellow | '''ke huam tayo yanaha''' - Your flowers are the most yellow.


==== plurals ====
===tense / aspect===


* Concrete nouns are pluralized by suffixing '''-m'''.  
The future tense is marked with the suffix '''-tli'''. Past tenses, including perfect and
:Examples :  '''kono''' - stone > '''konom''' - stones | '''naka''' - woman > '''nakam''' - women
pluperfect, are marked with the suffix '''-ye'''. The present tense is unmarked:


* When the last syllable of a word contains an '''m''', the plural is marked by reduplicating the final vowel.
* '''na ina''' - <tt>1.S eat</tt> - I eat / I am eating.
:Examples : '''kama''' - village > '''kama'a''' - villages | '''yama''' - mountain > '''yama'a''' - mountains
* '''na inatli''' - <tt>1.S eat.FUT</tt> - I will eat / I am about to eat.
* '''na inaye''' - <tt>1.S eat.PAST</tt> - I eat / I was eating / I have eaten / I had eaten.


* Collective (plural) nouns are marked by prefixing '''tli-'''.  
[[Kala]] does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. ‘I ate’, ‘I used to eat’, ‘I
:Examples : '''tsaka''' - house > '''tlitsaka''' - neighborhood | '''yama''' - mountain > '''tliyama''' - mountain range
have eaten’, ‘I had eaten’). However, one can easily clarify the temporal sequence of two actions by
marking the earlier one with the adverbial '''tsa''' (‘already’).


* Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
===mood===
:Example : '''sahi''' - color > '''sahim''' - colors > '''sahi ya'o''' - five color(s)


* Adjectives do not show plural agreement. However, when an adjective is used nominally, it can be pluralized.
* The conditional mood is formed with the particle '''iya'''.
:Example : '''nyeli''' - pink > '''nyelim''' - (the) pink (ones)


==== gender ====
* '''iya na ina''' - <tt>COND 1.S eat</tt> - I might be eating.


*In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings '''-ta''' and '''-na'''.
* The imperative mood is formed with the particle '''kya'''.
:Example : '''nikata''' "a male dog", '''nikana''' "a female dog".


==== articles ====
* '''kya ina''' - <tt>IMP eat</tt> - Eat!


*There is only one article in '''Kala''', '''ke'''. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".  
* The negative mood is formed with the suffix '''-k'''.


*It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
* '''na inak''' - <tt>1.S eat.NEG</tt> - I do not eat / I am not eating.
:Example : '''kama''' "village", '''ke kama''' "the/a village", '''ke kama'a''' "the villages"
:Example : '''inahi''' "snack", '''ke inahi''' "the/a snack", '''ke inahim''' "the snacks"


=== questions ===
* The volitive mood is formed with the suffix '''-ue''' (from '''ueha''' - to want, desire).


*When asking questions in '''Kala''', the idea, or concept, is the ''subject'', and the entire construction is followed by the interrogative particle '''ka'''.
* '''na inaue''' - <tt>1.S eat.VOL</tt> - I want to eat.


*'''ama...ka''' - when, lit: ''time...INT''
* The necessitative mood is formed with the suffix '''-he''' (from '''heya''' - to need, require).


*'''ko...ka''' - who, lit: ''person [Agentive]...INT''
* '''na inahe''' - <tt>1.S eat.NEC</tt> - I need to eat.


*'''koyo...ka''' - whose, lit: ''person-POSS...INT''
* The abilitative mood is formed with the suffix '''-pa''' (from '''pala''' - to be able).


*'''nye...ka''' - why, lit: ''reason...INT''
* '''na inapa''' - <tt>1.S eat.ABIL</tt> - I am able to eat./ I can eat.


*'''no...ka''' - what, lit: ''thing [Instrument]...INT''
===voice===


*'''mo...ka''' - where, lit: ''place...INT''
* The passive voice is formed by attaching the accusative prefix '''e-''' to the pronoun.


*'''to...ka''' - how, what manner, lit: ''manner/method...INT''
* '''ena ina''' - <tt>ACC.1.S eat</tt> - I am eaten. / I am being eaten.


*'''ku / o...ka''' - how much/many, lit: ''number/amount...INT''
==Prepositions==


==== examples ====
==Conjunctions==


*'''ama nam yalatli ka'''
==Questions==
:''time 1PL go-FUT INT''
:When will we go?


*'''ko ke tlaka ka'''
==Clauses==
:''person that man INT''
:Who is that man?


*'''nye kam hina ka'''
==Numbers==
:''reason 3PL here INT''
:Why are they here?


*'''no a ka''' / '''itla ka'''
===Cardinal Numbers===
:''thing be INT'' / ''this INT''
:What is this?


*'''koyo kama ke yama hina ka'''
*'''e'o''' - zero / nothing
:''person-POSS village the mountain near INT''
*'''na'o''' - one
:Whose village is near the mountain?
*'''ta'o''' - two
*'''ha'o''' - three
*'''ma'o''' - four
*'''ya'o''' - five
*'''tsa'o''' - six
*'''ka'o''' - seven
*'''pa'o''' - eight
*'''sa'o''' - nine
*'''ue'o''' - ten
*'''nye'o''' - (one) hundred
*'''tle'o''' - (one) thousand
*'''mue'o''' - ten thousand
*'''kye'o''' - (one) hundred thousand
*'''nte'o''' - (one) million


*'''mo satila nayo ka'''
=== Higher Numbers ===
:''place sandwich 1SG-POSS INT''
:Where is my sandwich?


*'''to nam yalatli ka'''
* '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
:''manner 1PL travel-FUT INT''
:How will we travel?


*'''ku ekam yetaye ka'''
* '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
:''amount TR-3PL give-PAST INT''
:How many were they given?


=== pronouns ===
* '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107


{| class="wikitable" border=1
* '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') | '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
|-
! !! ''Nominative'' !! ''Accusative'' !! ''Possessive'' !! ''Reflexive'' !! ''Reciprocal''
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
|| na || ena || nayo || na'i || ''' '''  
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
|| ta || eta ||tayo || ta'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
|| ha || eha || hayo || ha'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
|| nam || enam || namyo || nami || nanku
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' (EXCL)
|| na'am || ena'am || na'amyo || na'ami || na'anku
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
|| tam || etam || tamyo || tami || tanku
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
|| kam || ekam || kamyo || kami || kanku
|-
|}


==== examples ====
* '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024


*'''ina namyo'''
===Ordinal Numbers===
:''food 1PL-POSS''
:Our food.


*'''kami itsa'''
* '''ki'''- - ordinal prefix
:''3PL-REFL love''
:Example : '''kisa'o''' - ninth (in a sequence)
:They love themselves.
:Example : '''kiyanyepa'o''' - 508<sup>th</sup>


*'''tanku moto ka'''
===Fractions===
:''2PL-RECP remember INT''
:Do you remember each other?


*'''eha unyatlik'''
* '''i'''- - fractional prefix
:''ACC-3SG understand-FUT-NEG''
:Example : '''isa'o''' - a ninth, 1/9
:He/She will not be understood.
:Example : '''iha'o te pa'o''' - three eighths, 3/8 [lit: a third of eight]


=== Article 1, UDHR ===
==Word formation==


''' '''
==Punctuation==


== Index ==
== Index ==

Revision as of 11:08, 18 January 2011

  • Kala is meant to be a simple and euphonic personal conlang.
  • Many lexical entries are inspired/influenced/borrowed by/from any number of natlangs

Pronunciation

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i~i: (i) u~u: (u)
Mid e~e: (e) o~o: (o)
Open a~a: (a)

Diphthongs

falling
  • [aɪ~aɪ:] - ai
  • [aʊ~aʊ:] - ao
rising
  • [wa~wa:] - ua
  • [waɪ~waɪ:] - uai
  • [ja~ja:] - ya
  • [jaʊ~jaʊ:] - yao
  • [je~je:] - ye
  • [jo~jo:] - yo

Consonants

Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal
central lateral plain labial
Nasal m (m) n (n) ɲ (ny)
Plosive p~b (p) t~d (t) k~g (k) kʷ~gʷ (ku) ʔ (')
Fricative s (s) ʃ (s) h~ɦ (h)
Affricate ts (ts) tɬ (tl) tʃ (ts)
Approximant l~r (l) j (y) w (u)

Prenasalized consonants

  • In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,
while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases of syllabic /n/ or /m/.
  • mb /mp~mb/
Example: mpaka /ˈmpa.ka/ - n - boundary / border / line
  • nt /nt~nd/
Example: ntama /ˈnta.ma/ - n - calf (a young cow or bull)
  • nk /ŋk~ŋɡ/
Example: nkapa /ˈŋka.pa/ - n - alcohol / grog

Writing System

See: Moya

Grammatical Principles

  • The grammar of Kala should be regarded as a guide indicating how grammatical distinctions of gender, number, tense/aspect, noun, verb and particles are made. I have adopted the Arab grammarian's division into three categories (1) Noun [no / ata] Naua no.png / Naua ata.png, (2) Particle [peya] Naua peya.png, (3) Verb [uati] Naua uati.png. Kala does not always follow European models. It discards all redundancies. In English we say “two boys came yesterday”; in Kala “two boy come yesterday” [ta’o tahi yomaye tala] it is clear that more than one boy is already indicated by ‘two,’ while ‘yesterday’ shows the time, or tense of the verb.

Word Order

Sentence

  • Basic word order is SOV and is invariable.

-

  • (subject) - (object) - (verb)
tlaka (ke) naka anya
man (TOP) woman see
The man sees the woman.
  • (subject) - (verb)
nahi apuaye
girl sing.PAST
The girl sang. / The girl did sing.
  • (subject) - (complement) - (verb)
ke ina manka a
TOP food cold COP
The food is cold.
  • (subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)
ke naka tsa'e kama yalaye
TOP woman through village walk.PAST
The woman walked through the village.
  • (subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (object) - (verb)
na'eta itla omena yeta
1s.ACC.2s this apple give
I give to you this apple.
(In this case, the prepositional phrase is replaced by the pronominal construction.)
  • (subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)
ta kima poto tayo tse'ek
2s like photo 2s.POSS appear.NEG
You do not look like your photo.

Clauses

  • In addition to phrases, some sentences contain clauses, which resemble smaller sentences nested within the larger sentence.
They can modify noun phrases, verb phrases, or the whole of the larger sentence.

-

  • (subject) - (clause) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)
tlaka ke ko asaye hina ka'e nuyoku yalaye
man CONJ live.PAST here to New York go.PAST
The man who lived here went to New York.
  • (subject) - (clause) - (verb)
na ke ha aya a omu
1s CONJ 3s beautiful COP think
I think that she is beautiful.

Nouns

Affect / Degree

  • The diminutive is formed with -hi, and the augmentative with -ha.

These are respectively realized as -ki and -ka when attached to a word that has a final syllable containing h or y.

Example : ina - food, meal | inahi - snack, morsel | inaha - feast, banquet
Example : tsaka - house, home, dwelling | tsakahi - shack, hut, cabin | tsakaha - palace, mansion
  • These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
Example : yanahi - light yellow, kuyaha - dark green
  • In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
Example : tahaka - bigger/biggest | tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka - His house is bigger than mine.
Example : yanaha - more yellow/most yellow | ke huam tayo yanaha - Your flowers are the most yellow.

Gender

  • In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings -ta and -na.
Example : nikata "a male dog", nikana "a female dog".

Articles

  • There is only one article in Kala, ke. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
  • It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
Example : kama "village", ke kama "the/a village", ke kama'a "the villages"
Example : inahi "snack", ke inahi "the/a snack", ke inahim "the snacks"

Number

  • Nouns are either singular, plural or collective.
  • Concrete nouns are pluralized by suffixing -m.
Examples : kono - stone > konom - stones | naka - woman > nakam - women
  • When the last syllable of a word contains an m, the plural is marked by reduplicating the final vowel.
Examples : kama - village > kama'a - villages | teyemi - phrase > teyemi'i - phrases
  • Collective (plural) nouns are marked by prefixing tli-.
Examples : tsaka - house > tlitsaka - neighborhood | yama - mountain > tliyama - mountain range
  • Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
Example : sahi - color > sahim - colors > sahi ya'o - five color(s)
  • Adjectives do not show plural agreement. However, when an adjective is used nominally, it can be pluralized.
Example : nyeli - pink > nyelim - (the) pink (ones)

Names

Noun Suffixes

Pronouns

  • Kala generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.

There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.

Nominative Accusative Possessive Reflexive Reciprocal
1S na ena nayo na'i
2S ta eta tayo ta'i
3S ha eha hayo ha'i
4S tla etla tlayo tla'i
1P nam enam namyo nami nanku
1P (EXCL) na'am ena'am na'amyo na'ami na'anku
2P tam etam tamyo tami tanku
3P kam ekam kamyo kami kanku
4P tlam etlam tlamyo tlami tlanku

Correlative Pronouns

query this that some none any every whichever
adjective ka itla uatla iha ak ula kua ote
person ko...ka iko uako ihako hok kola kohua oteko
thing no...ka itla uatla ihano nok nola nokua oteno
time ama/tsima...ka ima uama ihama amak amala kuama otema
place mo...ka hina uana ihamo mok mola mokua otemo
way to...ka yoto uato ihato tok tola tokua oheto
amount ku/o...ka iku uaku ihaku huk/ok kula hukua/okua oteku
reason nye...ka inye uanye ihanye nyek ulanye nyekua otenye
kind su...ka isu uasu ihasu suk sula sukua otesu

Determiners

Pronouns

Adjectives

Adverbs

Verbs

tense / aspect

The future tense is marked with the suffix -tli. Past tenses, including perfect and pluperfect, are marked with the suffix -ye. The present tense is unmarked:

  • na ina - 1.S eat - I eat / I am eating.
  • na inatli - 1.S eat.FUT - I will eat / I am about to eat.
  • na inaye - 1.S eat.PAST - I eat / I was eating / I have eaten / I had eaten.

Kala does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. ‘I ate’, ‘I used to eat’, ‘I have eaten’, ‘I had eaten’). However, one can easily clarify the temporal sequence of two actions by marking the earlier one with the adverbial tsa (‘already’).

mood

  • The conditional mood is formed with the particle iya.
  • iya na ina - COND 1.S eat - I might be eating.
  • The imperative mood is formed with the particle kya.
  • kya ina - IMP eat - Eat!
  • The negative mood is formed with the suffix -k.
  • na inak - 1.S eat.NEG - I do not eat / I am not eating.
  • The volitive mood is formed with the suffix -ue (from ueha - to want, desire).
  • na inaue - 1.S eat.VOL - I want to eat.
  • The necessitative mood is formed with the suffix -he (from heya - to need, require).
  • na inahe - 1.S eat.NEC - I need to eat.
  • The abilitative mood is formed with the suffix -pa (from pala - to be able).
  • na inapa - 1.S eat.ABIL - I am able to eat./ I can eat.

voice

  • The passive voice is formed by attaching the accusative prefix e- to the pronoun.
  • ena ina - ACC.1.S eat - I am eaten. / I am being eaten.

Prepositions

Conjunctions

Questions

Clauses

Numbers

Cardinal Numbers

  • e'o - zero / nothing
  • na'o - one
  • ta'o - two
  • ha'o - three
  • ma'o - four
  • ya'o - five
  • tsa'o - six
  • ka'o - seven
  • pa'o - eight
  • sa'o - nine
  • ue'o - ten
  • nye'o - (one) hundred
  • tle'o - (one) thousand
  • mue'o - ten thousand
  • kye'o - (one) hundred thousand
  • nte'o - (one) million

Higher Numbers

  • uena'o - eleven / 11
  • taue'o - twenty / 20
  • nyeka'o - one hundred seven / 107
  • hanyetauetsa'o (long form) | hatatsa'o (short form) - three hundred twenty six / 326
  • tsatletauema'o - six thousand and twenty four / 6024

Ordinal Numbers

  • ki- - ordinal prefix
Example : kisa'o - ninth (in a sequence)
Example : kiyanyepa'o - 508th

Fractions

  • i- - fractional prefix
Example : isa'o - a ninth, 1/9
Example : iha'o te pa'o - three eighths, 3/8 [lit: a third of eight]

Word formation

Punctuation

Index

grammar outline | sentences | questions | lexicon | thematic lexicon | writing
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