Classical Arithide declension: Difference between revisions

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===Irregular nominatives===
===Irregular nominatives===


A combination of phonetic processes, among which is notable syncope (the elimination of non-initial or -final word syllables), has given rise to many first declension nouns whose nominative singular forms do not end in the expected ''-os''. In these nouns, the most common process has been the elision of the ''-o-'' in the ending; the resultant consonant clusters have each been resolved in a different way, at times through assimilation, at others through dissimilation, and in yet other cases triggering further elision. Note, however, that declension VIII nouns never undergo such reduction.
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:


Examples are given below:
'''Declension I'''
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness'' > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined


*'''*-fos > -fs > -ps:''' ''kaps, kaf-'' "list"{{footnote|1}}
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.
*'''*-tos > -ts > -ss > -s:''' ''ves, vet-'' "breeze"{{footnote|2}}
*'''*-dos > -ds > -z > -s:''' ''as, ad-'' "sea"
*'''*-ros > -rs > -s:''' ''tos'' "step, tor-"{{footnote|3}}
*'''*-egos, *-igos > -ēs, -īs:''' ''rēs, reg-'' "day", ''rīs, rig-'' "we (exclusive)"{{footnote|4}}
*'''*-gos > -gs > -ks:''' ''rūthex, rūtheg-'' "chairperson, president"{{footnote|5}}


{{footnote|1}}In cases other than the nominative, the /f/ is generally voiced to [v], while retaining its spelling. Hence &lt;kafo&gt; [kavo] "list (acc.)".<br>
'''Declension IV'''
{{footnote|2}}Supines of second to fourth conjugation verbs (which are declension I), as well as the infix ''-(i)t-'', do not undergo this particular reduction due to the prominence of their ''-t-'' and their productivity.<br>
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.
{{footnote|3}}This process, with ''r''-stems, was considerably short-lived, and affected only a limited number of words.<br>
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.
{{footnote|4}}Again, this process lost steam very quickly, and affected only the most commonly-used words.<br>
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly
{{footnote|5}}This process did not actually occur in [[Classical Arithide]], but in [[Dethric language|Dethric]], from which the few agentive nouns ending in ''-x'' were borrowed.
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]
 
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').
 
'''Declension V'''
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''
 
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.
 
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.


These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).


Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened. Vowel-lengthening in ''orathōs < *orathodos'' "religious" is logical, partly because the reduction involves the coalescence of two [o]s, and partly for reasons of contrast with plain ''orathos'' "religion". However, the adjectival substantive ending ''-itās'' has the stem ''-itat-'', and the stem of ''dhīs'' "festival" is actually ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ā-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.


==Grammatical cases==
==Grammatical cases==

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See also Classical Arithide grammar for more information


Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, Classical Arithide nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.

Declension classes

Nouns in Classical Arithide are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.

Declension I, with the characteristic nominative singular ending -os, is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (valonos "peace"), qualities (fyginthos "dangerousness"), acts (leatos "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (sonos "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.

Declension II nouns take the ending -as and refer to places: kitaras "hall", sivas "town", leatas "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.

Declension III nouns take the ending -ir, and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple -ir, and III-b with -rir. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: vokir "evil", kirir "faux pas", kreisantir "grief of bereavement".

Declension IV is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (-a), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. arotha "carpet", hegra "vine", izia "coin".

Declension V comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: thelera "neighbour", venera "deity", kunera "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of -era, the final part of which (-a) is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in -on but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.

These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).

Distinction between -thera and -on

Both the nominative singular endings -thera (V-a) and -on (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the -thera ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the vulgar tongue, and hence subsequently the koine and the modern standard.

The lexeme -on was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:

  • serēn "to write" > seron "one who writes, the person who wrote"
  • terēn "to weave" > teron "one who weaves, the person who wove"
  • damēn "to carry" > damon "one who carries, the person who carried"

It is even possible to attach -on to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:

  • seron "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS
  • seiron "the one writing" VS
  • serāson "one who has written", "one who has been published"

-Thera, on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:

  • serēn "to write" > sesthera "author"
  • terēn "to weave" > testhera "tailor, seamstress"
  • damēn "to carry" > danthera "porter"

The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.

For more, see Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns.

Irregular nominatives

The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + -s. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:

Declension I

  • -fos > -wos > -ōs
    • *safos "shade" > saōs, acc. saō, gen. savoi, dat. savae, loc. saōm, abl. saōn, ins. saftis
      Observe the fortition that occurs of -w- when followed by >2 vowels (savoi) or by a vowel other than -o- (savae). The original -f- is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.
  • (-oCos >) -oFos > ōs where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/
    • *bogos "swelling" > bōs, acc. bō, gen bōi; the remainder are formed regularly from bog-
    • *orathodos "religious" > orathōs, acc. orathō; the remainder are regular (orathod-)
      This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.
  • -osos > os by haplology, e.g. *kiosos "gap, gulf, emptiness > kios, kios-, otherwise regularly declined

The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.

Declension IV

  • *dad "hand" > dadz > daz > das, acc. dade/daze, nom. pl. dadāī, acc. pl. dadai/dazai; the remainder are regular.
    • *ad "sea" follows a similar path to become as, but its stem was permanently altered to az-, i.e. gen. azus, acc. pl. azai etc.
  • *vet "breeze" > vets > ves, acc. vete, gen. vetus etc. regularly
  • *tor "step" > tos, acc. tore, gen. torus etc. regularly
  • *reg "day" > reɣ > rē > rēs
    The stem was permanently altered to rē-, i.e. acc. rē, gen. rēus, acc. pl. rēai etc.
  • *gent "bloodline" > gēn, acc. gente, etc. regularly
  • *gjor "tongue" > iō, acc. iore, etc. regularly with stem ior- [jor]

The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. nes, net-).

Declension V

  • *aidonr̩ > aidōr, nom. aidōra, gen. aidonin etc. regularly with stem aidon-
  • *katasr̩ > katār, nom. katāra, gen. katasin etc. regularly with stem katas-

In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ilēthēs "world", stem ilēthēa-; itās "port", stem itāna-.

Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.

These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).

Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of kūs "proper" is actually kur-, and that of dhīs "festival" is dhid-. The occurrence of -ū- and -ī- in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like das, dad- "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.

Grammatical cases

Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:

  • Nominative, which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case
  • Topical, which marks the topic of a sentence
  • Accusative, which marks the object of a verb
  • Genitive, which marks possession by
  • Dative, which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.
  • Locative, which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)
  • Ablative, which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as parō "about, regarding" or etel "by (agentive)"
  • Instrumental, which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition etel "with"
  • Vocative, which marks direct address
  • Connective, which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. salumos "heaven" + innos "top" > saluminnum "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; innos is in the locative) and allas "city" + dolō "around" (from dolos "surroundings") > alladolō "around the city" 1
  • Essive, which marks existence as

1 

Alladolō (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar dolō allior (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: alladolō siethē sena "there are flowers around the city" vs. dolō allior siethē sena "there are flowers all about the city".

Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix -sanos (lit. "semblance, condition, state").

First declension -os

Nouns of and adjectives in the first declension take the following endings:

sg. pl.
Nom. sōmos, thiftios sōmēs
Top. sōmou sōmōi
Acc. sōmo sōmē
Gen. sōmoi, thiftine1 sōmēi, thiftinēi1
Dat. sōmae sōmei
Loc. sōmi, thiftim2 sōmō, thiftiōm2
Abl. sōmōn sōmēn
Ins. sōmōis, thiftitis1 sōmūis, thiftitēs1
Voc. sōmō sōmē
Ess./Con. sōm, sōm- sōme(r), sōme(r)-

1 The former in each pair is used with consonant-stem words (e.g. sōmos, sōm-), while the latter with vowel-stem words (e.g. thiftios, thifti-).

2 This alternation is not due to the consonant- and vowel-stem differentiation. The singular locative ending for declension I is -im, in this case shown truncated to -i after an m- stem, and to -m after a vowel-stem. The plural ending (-ōm) truncates in the same way with m-stem nouns, but not for vowel-stems.

Second declension -as

Unlike the first declension, nouns of the second declension do not distinguish endings between consonant- and vowel-stem words. An example conjugation is provided with sivias "town" below.

sg. pl.
Nom. sivias siviais
Top. siviau siviāi
Acc. sivia siviai
Gen. siviā siviēā
Dat. sivīs1 sivīei1
Loc. sivium siviām
Abl. sivior2 siviēri
Ins. siviāis siviēis
Voc. siviā siviai
Ess./Con. sivia, sivia- siviē, siviē-

1 The actual endings -īs and -iei. With -i- stem words, a simple, long -ī- results in both cases.

2 The actual ending is -ior. In this case the -i- in the case ending is elided.

Third declension -ir

In Classical Arithide, nouns that end in -ir in the nominative singular are descended from two separate older noun groups, with singular stems in either -yr- or -rud-, and fall in either of two declension classes; plural stems for both are -id-. The important distinction between nouns that end in the simpler -ir and more complex -rir endings (declensions III and IV respectively) must be maintained for purposes of proper declension. Besides maintaining distinctive stems, third declension nouns take endings that vary substantially from those of the fourth declension.

In the third declension, besides the traditional -yr- stem, sound change also introduced a variant stem, -ir-, and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.

Vokir is declined as follows:

sg. pl.
Nom. vokir vokidēs
Top. vokyrō, vokirō vokidō
Acc. voki vokidē
Gen. vokin vokidin
Dat. vokyrae, vokirae vokidei
Loc. vokyrī, vokirī vokidī
Abl. vokyrōn, vokirōn vokidēn
Ins. vokyrū, vokirū vokidū
Voc. voky vokidē
Ess./Con. voky, voky(r)- vokit, vokid-

Fourth declension -rir

The IVth declension historically derives from the ending -ruder. Phonological assimilation has taken place and reduced the reflexes to -rir, but the historical form manifests itself in many places. Kirir is declined as follows:

sg. pl.
Nom. kirir kiridēs
Top. kirudō kiridō
Acc. kiru(d) kiridē
Gen. kirudi kiridēī
Dat. kirudīs kiridiei
Loc. kirudum kiridām
Abl. kirudior kiridēri
Ins. kirū kiridū
Voc. kirū kiridē
Ess./Con. kirur, kirud- kirit, kirid-

Fifth declension -er and -a etc.

The groups of nouns in the fifth declension decline in generally the same way, albeit with minor differences. Nouns with no ending are declined like nouns ending in -er.

Theler, steima and stant are declined as below:

sg. pl. sg. pl. sg. pl.
Nom. theler theleis steima steimeis stant stanteis
Top. theleu theleiā steimeu steimeiā stanteu stanteiā
Acc. thelor thelei steimor steimei stantor stantei
Gen. thelus thelius steimus steimeus stantus stantius
Dat. theleīs thelīei steimeīs steimīei stanteīs stantīei
Loc. thelera thelirē steimera steimerē stantera stantirē
Abl. theleōn theliēn steimōn steimēn stanteōn stantiēn
Ins. thelet(is) thelitū steimet(is) steimetū stantet(is) stantitū
Voc. thelā thelī steimā steimē stantā stantī
Ess./Con. thele, thele- theli, theli- steima, steima- steime, steime- stante, stante- stanti, stanti-

Sixth declension -on

The sixth declension is the only class of nouns that has variant stems: in the plural, the -on (which is actually part of the stem; the class marker is a null morpheme) fronts to become -ēn-. With certain words, such as almenton, the stem (without the -on) has taken on a nominal meaning itself through common use and can take the endings of the VIth declension directly.

Thus agnon has a declension of:

sg. pl.
Nom. agnon agnein1
Top. agnona agnēna
Acc. agnone agnēne
Gen. agnonus agnēnus
Dat. agnoni agnēni
Loc. agnonim agnēnōm
Abl. agnonōn agnēnēn
Ins. agnonū agnēnū
Voc. agnonā agnēnā
Ess./Con. agnon, agnon- agnein, agnein-

1 The form -ein is a contraction of the older -ēnis; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.

Seventh declension -i, -e, -is, -es

The seventh declension is as vosi and libe:

sg. pl.
Nom. vosi, libe vosīs, libēs
Top. vosus vosutē
Acc. vosēs vosētē
Gen. vosis vositē
Dat. vose, libeā voserei
Loc. vosira vosērē
Abl. vosigōn vosēgēn
Ins. vosuī, libeī vosuītē, libeītē
Voc. vosi vosē
Ess./Con. vosi, vosi- vosē, vosē-

Eighth declension -os, -as, -ir

The derived nouns of the eighth declension take endings as follows in the table below. One peculiarity of these derived nouns is that they form all cases by appending the relevant case ending to their connective, as will be demonstrated by the example conjugations table further down; in -ir nouns, only the singular connective is used, except where the case endings are identical for the singular and plural, when the plural connective is also used. For this declension, the genitive, dative, locative, ablative and instrumental cases have identical endings for all three classes of nouns.

Note: This declension does not cover the derived verbal nouns, whether supine, agent or patient. Declension VIII encompasses only abstract nouns derived from other nouns, as per the examples below. Verbal nouns include identifying infixes and decline according to declensions I, II etc.

sg. pl. sg. pl. sg. pl.
Nom. -os -ēs -as -ae -ir -rēs
Top. -ou -ōi -ai -ōi -ou -ōi
Acc. -o -ē -a -ē -o -ē
Gen. -is -ēs -is -ēs -is -is
Dat. -ae -ei -ae -ei -ae -ei
Loc. -um -um -um -um -um -um
Abl. -ōn -ēn -ōn -ēn -ōn -ēn
Ins. -ōs -ū -ās -ū -itis -ērū
Voc. -ā -ā -ā -ē -ā -ērā
Ess./Con. -ōr, -or- -ēr, -er- -ār, -ar- -aes, -aer- -ir, -r- -rēr, -rēr-

Moros "request" (cf. mossos "act of requesting"), minnas "locality of the valley" and syndir "sin" are declined as examples below:

sg. pl. sg. pl. sg. pl.
Nom. moros morēs minnas minnae syndir syndrēs
Top. mororou morerōi minnarai minnaerōi syndrou syndrōi
Acc. mororo morerē minnara minnaerē syndro syndrē
Gen. mororis morerēs minnaris minnaerēs syndris syndrēris
Dat. mororae morerei minnarae minnaerei syndrae syndrei
Loc. mororum morerum minnarum minnaerum syndrum syndrērum
Abl. mororōn morerēn minnarōn minnaerēn syndrōn syndrēn
Ins. mororōs morerū minnarās minnaerū syndritis syndrērū
Voc. mororā morerā, morerē minnarā minnaerē syndrā syndrērā
Ess./Con. morōr, moror- morēr, morer- minnār, minnar- minnaes, minnaer- syndir, syndr- syndrēr, syndrēr-

Irregular nouns

Main article: List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns

As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.

In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. Pereos, gen. Fini; Symbakos, voc. Sebeō). See also Areth names#Classical declension for more on personal name declensions.

See also

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