Classical Arithide declension: Difference between revisions
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{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}} | {{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}} | ||
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are | Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular. | ||
==Declension classes== | ==Declension classes== | ||
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be | Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class. | ||
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension. | |||
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II. | |||
Both the nominative singular endings ''- | '''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement". | ||
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin". | |||
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech. | |||
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III). | |||
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''=== | |||
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]]. | |||
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope: | The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope: | ||
*'' | *''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote" | ||
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove" | *''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove" | ||
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried" | *''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried" | ||
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare: | It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare: | ||
*'' | *''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS | ||
*'' | *''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS | ||
*'' | *''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published" | ||
*'' | |||
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow: | |||
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author" | |||
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress" | |||
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter" | |||
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation. | |||
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]]. | |||
===Irregular nominatives=== | ===Irregular nominatives=== | ||
Revision as of 00:51, 20 September 2009
- See also Classical Arithide grammar for more information
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, Classical Arithide nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.
Declension classes
Nouns in Classical Arithide are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.
Declension I, with the characteristic nominative singular ending -os, is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (valonos "peace"), qualities (fyginthos "dangerousness"), acts (leatos "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (sonos "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.
Declension II nouns take the ending -as and refer to places: kitaras "hall", sivas "town", leatas "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.
Declension III nouns take the ending -ir, and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple -ir, and III-b with -rir. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: vokir "evil", kirir "faux pas", kreisantir "grief of bereavement".
Declension IV is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (-a), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. arotha "carpet", hegra "vine", izia "coin".
Declension V comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: thelera "neighbour", venera "deity", kunera "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of -era, the final part of which (-a) is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in -on but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).
Distinction between -thera and -on
Both the nominative singular endings -thera (V-a) and -on (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the -thera ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the vulgar tongue, and hence subsequently the koine and the modern standard.
The lexeme -on was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:
- serēn "to write" > seron "one who writes, the person who wrote"
- terēn "to weave" > teron "one who weaves, the person who wove"
- damēn "to carry" > damon "one who carries, the person who carried"
It is even possible to attach -on to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:
- seron "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS
- seiron "the one writing" VS
- serāson "one who has written", "one who has been published"
-Thera, on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:
- serēn "to write" > sesthera "author"
- terēn "to weave" > testhera "tailor, seamstress"
- damēn "to carry" > danthera "porter"
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.
For more, see Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns.
Irregular nominatives
A combination of phonetic processes, among which is notable syncope (the elimination of non-initial or -final word syllables), has given rise to many first declension nouns whose nominative singular forms do not end in the expected -os. In these nouns, the most common process has been the elision of the -o- in the ending; the resultant consonant clusters have each been resolved in a different way, at times through assimilation, at others through dissimilation, and in yet other cases triggering further elision. Note, however, that declension VIII nouns never undergo such reduction.
Examples are given below:
- *-fos > -fs > -ps: kaps, kaf- "list"1
- *-tos > -ts > -ss > -s: ves, vet- "breeze"2
- *-dos > -ds > -z > -s: as, ad- "sea"
- *-ros > -rs > -s: tos "step, tor-"3
- *-egos, *-igos > -ēs, -īs: rēs, reg- "day", rīs, rig- "we (exclusive)"4
- *-gos > -gs > -ks: rūthex, rūtheg- "chairperson, president"5
1
In cases other than the nominative, the /f/ is generally voiced to [v], while retaining its spelling. Hence <kafo> [kavo] "list (acc.)".
2
Supines of second to fourth conjugation verbs (which are declension I), as well as the infix -(i)t-, do not undergo this particular reduction due to the prominence of their -t- and their productivity.
3
This process, with r-stems, was considerably short-lived, and affected only a limited number of words.
4
Again, this process lost steam very quickly, and affected only the most commonly-used words.
5
This process did not actually occur in Classical Arithide, but in Dethric, from which the few agentive nouns ending in -x were borrowed.
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened. Vowel-lengthening in orathōs < *orathodos "religious" is logical, partly because the reduction involves the coalescence of two [o]s, and partly for reasons of contrast with plain orathos "religion". However, the adjectival substantive ending -itās has the stem -itat-, and the stem of dhīs "festival" is actually dhid-. The occurrence of -ā- and -ī- in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like das, dad- "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.
Grammatical cases
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:
- Nominative, which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case
- Topical, which marks the topic of a sentence
- Accusative, which marks the object of a verb
- Genitive, which marks possession by
- Dative, which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.
- Locative, which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)
- Ablative, which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as parō "about, regarding" or etel "by (agentive)"
- Instrumental, which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition etel "with"
- Vocative, which marks direct address
- Connective, which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. salumos "heaven" + innos "top" > saluminnum "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; innos is in the locative) and allas "city" + dolō "around" (from dolos "surroundings") > alladolō "around the city" 1
- Essive, which marks existence as
1
Alladolō (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar dolō allior (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: alladolō siethē sena "there are flowers around the city" vs. dolō allior siethē sena "there are flowers all about the city".
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix -sanos (lit. "semblance, condition, state").
First declension -os
Nouns of and adjectives in the first declension take the following endings:
| sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | sōmos, thiftios | sōmēs |
| Top. | sōmou | sōmōi |
| Acc. | sōmo | sōmē |
| Gen. | sōmoi, thiftine1 | sōmēi, thiftinēi1 |
| Dat. | sōmae | sōmei |
| Loc. | sōmi, thiftim2 | sōmō, thiftiōm2 |
| Abl. | sōmōn | sōmēn |
| Ins. | sōmōis, thiftitis1 | sōmūis, thiftitēs1 |
| Voc. | sōmō | sōmē |
| Ess./Con. | sōm, sōm- | sōme(r), sōme(r)- |
1 The former in each pair is used with consonant-stem words (e.g. sōmos, sōm-), while the latter with vowel-stem words (e.g. thiftios, thifti-).
2 This alternation is not due to the consonant- and vowel-stem differentiation. The singular locative ending for declension I is -im, in this case shown truncated to -i after an m- stem, and to -m after a vowel-stem. The plural ending (-ōm) truncates in the same way with m-stem nouns, but not for vowel-stems.
Second declension -as
Unlike the first declension, nouns of the second declension do not distinguish endings between consonant- and vowel-stem words. An example conjugation is provided with sivias "town" below.
| sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | sivias | siviais |
| Top. | siviau | siviāi |
| Acc. | sivia | siviai |
| Gen. | siviā | siviēā |
| Dat. | sivīs1 | sivīei1 |
| Loc. | sivium | siviām |
| Abl. | sivior2 | siviēri |
| Ins. | siviāis | siviēis |
| Voc. | siviā | siviai |
| Ess./Con. | sivia, sivia- | siviē, siviē- |
1 The actual endings -īs and -iei. With -i- stem words, a simple, long -ī- results in both cases.
2 The actual ending is -ior. In this case the -i- in the case ending is elided.
Third declension -ir
In Classical Arithide, nouns that end in -ir in the nominative singular are descended from two separate older noun groups, with singular stems in either -yr- or -rud-, and fall in either of two declension classes; plural stems for both are -id-. The important distinction between nouns that end in the simpler -ir and more complex -rir endings (declensions III and IV respectively) must be maintained for purposes of proper declension. Besides maintaining distinctive stems, third declension nouns take endings that vary substantially from those of the fourth declension.
In the third declension, besides the traditional -yr- stem, sound change also introduced a variant stem, -ir-, and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.
Vokir is declined as follows:
| sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | vokir | vokidēs |
| Top. | vokyrō, vokirō | vokidō |
| Acc. | voki | vokidē |
| Gen. | vokin | vokidin |
| Dat. | vokyrae, vokirae | vokidei |
| Loc. | vokyrī, vokirī | vokidī |
| Abl. | vokyrōn, vokirōn | vokidēn |
| Ins. | vokyrū, vokirū | vokidū |
| Voc. | voky | vokidē |
| Ess./Con. | voky, voky(r)- | vokit, vokid- |
Fourth declension -rir
The IVth declension historically derives from the ending -ruder. Phonological assimilation has taken place and reduced the reflexes to -rir, but the historical form manifests itself in many places. Kirir is declined as follows:
| sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | kirir | kiridēs |
| Top. | kirudō | kiridō |
| Acc. | kiru(d) | kiridē |
| Gen. | kirudi | kiridēī |
| Dat. | kirudīs | kiridiei |
| Loc. | kirudum | kiridām |
| Abl. | kirudior | kiridēri |
| Ins. | kirū | kiridū |
| Voc. | kirū | kiridē |
| Ess./Con. | kirur, kirud- | kirit, kirid- |
Fifth declension -er and -a etc.
The groups of nouns in the fifth declension decline in generally the same way, albeit with minor differences. Nouns with no ending are declined like nouns ending in -er.
Theler, steima and stant are declined as below:
| sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | theler | theleis | steima | steimeis | stant | stanteis |
| Top. | theleu | theleiā | steimeu | steimeiā | stanteu | stanteiā |
| Acc. | thelor | thelei | steimor | steimei | stantor | stantei |
| Gen. | thelus | thelius | steimus | steimeus | stantus | stantius |
| Dat. | theleīs | thelīei | steimeīs | steimīei | stanteīs | stantīei |
| Loc. | thelera | thelirē | steimera | steimerē | stantera | stantirē |
| Abl. | theleōn | theliēn | steimōn | steimēn | stanteōn | stantiēn |
| Ins. | thelet(is) | thelitū | steimet(is) | steimetū | stantet(is) | stantitū |
| Voc. | thelā | thelī | steimā | steimē | stantā | stantī |
| Ess./Con. | thele, thele- | theli, theli- | steima, steima- | steime, steime- | stante, stante- | stanti, stanti- |
Sixth declension -on
The sixth declension is the only class of nouns that has variant stems: in the plural, the -on (which is actually part of the stem; the class marker is a null morpheme) fronts to become -ēn-. With certain words, such as almenton, the stem (without the -on) has taken on a nominal meaning itself through common use and can take the endings of the VIth declension directly.
Thus agnon has a declension of:
| sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | agnon | agnein1 |
| Top. | agnona | agnēna |
| Acc. | agnone | agnēne |
| Gen. | agnonus | agnēnus |
| Dat. | agnoni | agnēni |
| Loc. | agnonim | agnēnōm |
| Abl. | agnonōn | agnēnēn |
| Ins. | agnonū | agnēnū |
| Voc. | agnonā | agnēnā |
| Ess./Con. | agnon, agnon- | agnein, agnein- |
1 The form -ein is a contraction of the older -ēnis; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.
Seventh declension -i, -e, -is, -es
The seventh declension is as vosi and libe:
| sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | vosi, libe | vosīs, libēs |
| Top. | vosus | vosutē |
| Acc. | vosēs | vosētē |
| Gen. | vosis | vositē |
| Dat. | vose, libeā | voserei |
| Loc. | vosira | vosērē |
| Abl. | vosigōn | vosēgēn |
| Ins. | vosuī, libeī | vosuītē, libeītē |
| Voc. | vosi | vosē |
| Ess./Con. | vosi, vosi- | vosē, vosē- |
Eighth declension -os, -as, -ir
The derived nouns of the eighth declension take endings as follows in the table below. One peculiarity of these derived nouns is that they form all cases by appending the relevant case ending to their connective, as will be demonstrated by the example conjugations table further down; in -ir nouns, only the singular connective is used, except where the case endings are identical for the singular and plural, when the plural connective is also used. For this declension, the genitive, dative, locative, ablative and instrumental cases have identical endings for all three classes of nouns.
Note: This declension does not cover the derived verbal nouns, whether supine, agent or patient. Declension VIII encompasses only abstract nouns derived from other nouns, as per the examples below. Verbal nouns include identifying infixes and decline according to declensions I, II etc.
| sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | -os | -ēs | -as | -ae | -ir | -rēs |
| Top. | -ou | -ōi | -ai | -ōi | -ou | -ōi |
| Acc. | -o | -ē | -a | -ē | -o | -ē |
| Gen. | -is | -ēs | -is | -ēs | -is | -is |
| Dat. | -ae | -ei | -ae | -ei | -ae | -ei |
| Loc. | -um | -um | -um | -um | -um | -um |
| Abl. | -ōn | -ēn | -ōn | -ēn | -ōn | -ēn |
| Ins. | -ōs | -ū | -ās | -ū | -itis | -ērū |
| Voc. | -ā | -ā | -ā | -ē | -ā | -ērā |
| Ess./Con. | -ōr, -or- | -ēr, -er- | -ār, -ar- | -aes, -aer- | -ir, -r- | -rēr, -rēr- |
Moros "request" (cf. mossos "act of requesting"), minnas "locality of the valley" and syndir "sin" are declined as examples below:
| sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | |
| Nom. | moros | morēs | minnas | minnae | syndir | syndrēs |
| Top. | mororou | morerōi | minnarai | minnaerōi | syndrou | syndrōi |
| Acc. | mororo | morerē | minnara | minnaerē | syndro | syndrē |
| Gen. | mororis | morerēs | minnaris | minnaerēs | syndris | syndrēris |
| Dat. | mororae | morerei | minnarae | minnaerei | syndrae | syndrei |
| Loc. | mororum | morerum | minnarum | minnaerum | syndrum | syndrērum |
| Abl. | mororōn | morerēn | minnarōn | minnaerēn | syndrōn | syndrēn |
| Ins. | mororōs | morerū | minnarās | minnaerū | syndritis | syndrērū |
| Voc. | mororā | morerā, morerē | minnarā | minnaerē | syndrā | syndrērā |
| Ess./Con. | morōr, moror- | morēr, morer- | minnār, minnar- | minnaes, minnaer- | syndir, syndr- | syndrēr, syndrēr- |
Irregular nouns
- Main article: List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. Pereos, gen. Fini; Symbakos, voc. Sebeō). See also Areth names#Classical declension for more on personal name declensions.
