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| =Syntax=
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| Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles). The subject, if understood, can be omitted at the end of an utterance: '''pana''' ("''It is raining.''") '''pana!''' ("''Rain!''") An utterance can be anything from an interjection to a story.
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| ==Basic Sentences==
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| The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
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| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
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| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In both sentences, the words are identical: '''mita''' – “''dog''”, '''tlaka''' – “''man''”, '''anya''' - “''eye; see''”. The only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence. Intransitive (including those of the existential type) clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''nta’i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby sleeps.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''sama nala'''
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| : <small>sun shine</small>
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| : ''The sun shines.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Transitive clauses follow a SOV pattern and grammatically require the object particle '''ke'''.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ona ke matla kuha'''
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| : <small>mother O stew cook</small>
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| : ''(The) mother is cooking (the) stew.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tasako ke masami yake'''
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| : <small>hunt-AG O deer-PAU pursue</small>
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| : ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==Predicates==
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| In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position. Many statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are preferably expressed with stative intransitive verbs in Kala, requiring no copula. (For simplicity, such verbs are glossed without “be” in interlinears.)
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita hikya'''
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| : <small>dog old</small>
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| : ''The dog is old.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''nahi tayo aya'''
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| : <small>daughter 2s.GEN beautiful</small>
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| : ''Your daughter is beautiful.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| The same phrases can be formed using the copula '''a''', this is grammatical but bulky and jarring.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita hikya a'''
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| : <small>dog old COP</small>
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| : ''The dog is old.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''nahi tayo aya a'''
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| : <small>daughter 2s.GEN beautiful COP</small>
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| : ''Your daughter is beautiful.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ===Negation===
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| The negative mood [NEG] (always marked finally on the primary verb) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or –'''nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/). ''See also: 3.2.3) Mood''
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tahi inyak'''
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| : <small>boy hunger-NEG</small>
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| : ''The boy is not hungry.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''yohuaye ha ke samalo anyak'''
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| : <small>night-PST 3s O star-PL watch-NEG</small>
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| : ''She did not watch the stars last night.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In general, contiguous serial verb constructions can only be negated as a whole. Negating one or more of the verbs in the construction separately is ungrammatical.
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| * '''na ke tsakahue nya ina ka’elatlik'''
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| : <small>1s O home-LOC for eat toward-MVT-FUT-NEG</small>
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| : ''I'm not coming home for dinner.''
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| However, if there is a modal auxiliary, negation may either take scope over the modal (and thus over the whole clause), or alternatively only over the non-modal part of the serial verb construction:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''eta tlahapok'''
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| : <small>P.2s leave-compel-NEG</small>
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| : ''You don't have to leave.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''eta tlahamyok'''
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| : <small>P.2s leave-PERM-NEG</small>
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| : ''You're not allowed to leave.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In some serial verb constructions, where the middle noun phrase acts both as the object of the first verb and as the subject of the second verb, each verb phrase can be negated separately.
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| ===Voice===
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| Passive voice emphasizes the process rather than who is performing the action. In Kala this form is called '''kemi'''. There are few patterns to help distinguish between active and passive voices in Kala verbs. Using the passive voice is not common in Kala. It can sometimes be used to emphasize what would normally have been the object of the sentence. In order to shift emphasis away from the agent and towards the patient or theme, a transitive sentence can be passivized simply by word order, or using the particle '''ni''' (“''by''”) ['''PASS'''].
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| '''''ACTIVE'''''
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| * '''na ke tanum yempahue moheye'''
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| : <small>1s O plate-PL table-LOC place-PST</small>
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| : ''I put dishes on the table.''
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| * '''na ke topa muntaye'''
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| : <small>1s O bed rearrange-PST</small>
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| : ''I changed the bed.''
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| * '''ha ke yona yomutli'''
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| : <small>3s O book read-FUT</small>
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| : ''She will read the book.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| '''''PASSIVE'''''
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| * '''ke tanum yempahue moheye'''
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| : <small>O plate-PL table-LOC place-PST</small>
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| : ''Dishes were put on the table.''
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| * '''ke topa ni naku nayo muntaye'''
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| : <small>O bed PASS sister 1s.GEN rearrange-PST</small>
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| : ''The bed was changed by my sister.''
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| * '''ke yona ni kola yomutli'''
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| : <small>O book PASS AG.INDEF read-FUT</small>
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| : ''The book will be read by someone.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==Compound Sentences==
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| Two sentences may be joined together to form a longer compound sentence. Both sentences must be able to stand alone as properly formed sentences. When combined, they simply come one after the other, joined by a conjunction. Common Conjunctions:
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
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| ! ''Kala''
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| ! ''meaning''
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| ! ''example''
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| |-align=center
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| | '''pa'''
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| | <small>although; even; despite</small>
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| | She is here ''despite'' my protest.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''po'''
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| | <small>so; thus</small>
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| | He seems nice ''so'' I ate with him.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''ku'''
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| | <small>and; also; too</small>
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| | I see it ''and'' I see you.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''ma'''
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| | <small>and; also; too</small>
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| | I see it ''and'' you.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''ua'''
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| | <small>and/or; either</small>
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| | You may eat ''and/or'' drink.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''ue'''
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| | <small>either X or Y</small>
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| | You may ''either'' eat ''or'' drink.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''uenke''' ('''uek''')
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| | <small>neither X or Y</small>
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| | You may ''neither'' eat ''nor'' drink.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''yema'''
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| | <small>both X and Y</small>
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| | I ate ''both'' soup ''and'' bread.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''yo'''
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| | <small>if X then Y; therefore</small>
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| | ''If'' she comes ''then'' we’ll eat.
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| |-align=center
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| | '''ehe''' ('''me''')
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| | <small>but ; however</small>
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| | I dislike him, ''but'' he is my brother.
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| |}
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''na ina ku ha moku'''
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| : <small>1s eat and 3s sleep</small>
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| : ''I am eating and she is sleeping.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''na ina ehe ha moku'''
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| : <small>1s eat but 3s sleep</small>
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| : ''I am eating but she is sleeping.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| <small>Note: '''ku''' is a clause level conjunction used to join to independent clauses.</small>
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ta ina ua inu'''
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| : <small>2s eat and/or drink</small>
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| : ''You are eating and/or you are drinking.''
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| * '''ntahi ke mita anya ma inamya'''
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| : <small>child O dog see and eat-CAUS</small>
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| : ''The child saw and fed the dog.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ta ina ue inu'''
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| : <small>2s eat or drink</small>
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| : ''You are either eating or else you are drinking.''
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| * '''ha tala yo na’am hinatlik'''
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| : <small>3s come therefore 1pl.EXCL be.here-FUT-NEG</small>
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| : ''If she comes we won’t be here.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Clause-level conjunctions such as '''ku''' (“''and; also; too''”), '''ua''' (“''or; either; otherwise''”), or '''ehe''' (“''but; however''”) are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions (except for '''ku''') can be used to connect noun phrases.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tahi tohyo ku nahi pina'''
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| : <small>boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent</small>
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| : ''The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai'''
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| : <small>now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM</small>
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| : ''Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction '''ma''' "''and''" (sometimes "''with''").
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya'''
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| : <small>day-PST 1s O eagle CONJ duck see</small>
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| : ''I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.''
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| * '''kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya'''
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| : <small>squirrel O house 3pl.GEN with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make</small>
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| : ''The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ona ma ota kyosanku'''
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| : <small>mother and father fornicate-RECP</small>
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| : ''Mother and father have sex.''
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| * '''ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli'''
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| : <small>2s with 1s O forest-LOC-MVT-FUT</small>
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| : ''You and I will go to the forest together.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction '''ua''' ("''or; other''"). This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction '''ue''' ("(exclusive) ''either X or Y''") is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo'''
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| : <small>2s O pear or apple eat-PERM</small>
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| : ''You may eat an apple or a pear.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsola ue otso itsikua mataye'''
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| : <small>fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST</small>
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| : ''It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Contrastive coordination of noun phrases is achieved with '''ehe''' ("''but; however''") (or '''me''' more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya'''
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| : <small>day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive</small>
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| : ''The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''na itlaka mek inaka unya'''
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| : <small>1s PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know</small>
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| : ''I know this man, but not this woman.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==Compliment Clauses==
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| Complement clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as a noun (most importantly as the subject or object of a sentence), and are formed exactly like ordinary main clauses, preceded by the particle '''ke''' (“topic particle”).
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| * '''nakkan ke eya tekim kamahi hyoka munaye'''
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| : <small>woman-chief O maybe enemy-PL city-DIM attack worry-PST</small>
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| : ''The queen was worried that the enemies might attack the village.''
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| * '''itomatle ke maliya noyamya'''
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| : <small>wood-carve O Mary happy-CAUS</small>
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| : ''Carving wood makes Mary happy.''
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| Complement clauses can also act as the object of a motional/locational verb:
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| * '''ta ke naha ka’elak yatli ke tlohi kuyepak'''
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| : <small>2s O river toward-MVT-NEG if.X.then.Y O salmon grab-ABIL-NEG</small>
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| : ''You can't catch salmon if you don't go to the river.''
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| * '''kam ka’e tsiua uahe moku ma ina yalayenko'''
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| : <small>3pl toward lake instead.of rest and eat walk-PST-CONT</small>
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| : ''Instead of taking a rest and eating, they continued to walk towards the lake.''
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| Since complement clauses behave like nouns syntactically, they may participate in existential constructions as well. Semantically, this indicates that the occurrence of the action described in the complement clause is emphatically affirmed.
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| * '''uala ke yemua tlana masenko'''
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| : <small>verily O DIST-place person dance-CONT</small>
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| : ''There is dancing over there.'' (lit. <tt>it's true that people are dancing there</tt>)
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| In addition to the particle '''ke''', Kala possesses a few other words which may fill the same syntactic position under special circumstances. The most common of these appears in the context of reported speech. A couple of other specialized particles have a more limited distribution, appearing mainly in evidential constructions.
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| ==Relative Clauses==
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| Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -'''tle''' (or -'''le''' if the last syllable has '''tl'''). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''na ke naka amyatle pesoue'''
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| : <small>1s O woman liked-REL meet-VOL</small>
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| : ''I want to meet a girl who is friendly.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli'''
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| : <small>3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT</small>
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| : ''They who fight well will defeat the enemy.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| * '''naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua'''
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| : <small>sister 1s.GEN O strawberry-all 1s pick-PST-REL eat-PFV</small>
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| : ''My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.''
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| If both subject and object of a transitive relative clause are represented by the same pronoun, the relativized noun will be assumed to be the subject of the subclause. In order to relativize the object in such a situation, the subject must be represented by one of the reflexive, or reciprocal pronouns instead, which explicitly refer back to the subject of the matrix clause:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''aye tanako ke tlaka eha hyokatle mata'''
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| : <small>past fight-AG O man P.3s attack-REL kill</small>
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| : ''The warrior killed the man who attacked him.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''aye tanako ke ha tlaka hyokatle mata'''
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| : <small>past fight-AG O 3s man attack-REL kill</small>
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| : ''The warrior killed the man whom he attacked.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Relativization of oblique participants works very much the same way as relativization of subjects and objects, but the repeated pronoun needs to appear inside a prepositional phrase or coverb phrase which shows the role of the relativized noun within the subclause.
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| * '''ikamahi ena nasayetle'''
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| : <small>PROX-city-DIM P.1s be.born-PST-REL</small>
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| : ''This is the village in which I was born.''
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| * '''ke taku tlakayo na tlayayetle nya teki matapua'''
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| : <small>O brother man-GEN 1s wed-PST-REL by enemy kill-PFV</small>
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| : ''The man whose brother I married has been killed by the enemy.''
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| * '''iyoma ke yomatle ta’ena nya uapa talaue'''
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| : <small>today O day-REL 2s-P.1s for visit come-VOL</small>
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| : ''Today is the day on which you want to come and visit me.''
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| In case a relative clause would contain only the subject and an intransitive verb phrase, speakers of Kala are likely to use an attributive construction instead. If the attributed verb phrase contains more than one verb, all of them need to appear in the attributive form.
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| * '''na ke nahi amyan pesoue'''
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| : <small>1s O girl like-ADV meet-VOL</small>
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| : ''I want to meet a girl who is friendly. (lit. <tt>a friendly girl</tt>)''
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| * '''kola sima ke ina kapyatli'''
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| : <small>AG-INDEF sit O food receive-FUT</small>
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| : ''Anyone who is sitting quietly gets food.''
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| Note that both relative clauses and attributive constructions tend to be avoided when they refer to the subject of a sentence. Instead, the semantically ‘attributive’ verb describing the subject is treated syntactically as forming a sequential or simultaneous event together with the main verb of the sentence:
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| * '''tahi pina ke kema unya'''
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| : <small>boy smart O task understand</small>
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| : ''The smart boy understands the task.''
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| ===Adverbial clauses===
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| Kala has several different ways to express adverbial elements – adverbial suffix, adpositional phrases, serial verb constructions, and full-scale adverbialized subclauses. For most types of adverbials, more than one of these methods can be used. Because an adequate description of this gets rather lengthy, and because it presupposes an understanding of how serial verb constructions work in Kala, it is described in a later section of this document. Adverbial constructions which are valid constituents typically appear near the beginning of a sentence, with adpositional phrases preceding subclauses, but they may be topic-fronted for emphasis. If several adverbial constituents of the same syntactic type are present, they are generally ordered place → manner → reason → purpose → result → time.
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| ==Copular Sentences==
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| The copula '''a''' (''to be; exist; yes'') is not used as it is in English. It is primarily used to affirm Yes/No questions. '''ta inaye ka''' (''Did you eat?'') '''a''' (''Yes.'') However, it can be used to add emphasis or nuance to a descriptive phrase. In an adjectival predicate the verb [to be] is not normally used.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ha kiha'''
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| : <small>3s tall</small>
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| : ''She is tall.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tomua nya itsaka yasue'''
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| : <small>rent for PROX-house cheap</small>
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| : ''The rent for this house is cheap.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==Questions==
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| There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
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| ===Polar questions===
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| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina'''
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| : <small>dog eat</small>
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| : ''The dog eats.''
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| * '''ta ke tlo’o anyaye'''
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| : <small>2s O elephant see-PST</small>
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| : ''You saw the elephant.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina ka'''
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| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
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| : ''Does the dog eat?''
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| * '''ta ke tlo’o anyaye ka'''
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| : <small>2s O elephant see-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ===Content questions===
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| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' (“or”) introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
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| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
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| : <small>2s O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
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| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
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| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
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| : <small>truly 2s O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
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| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
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| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' (“''person''”), '''mo''' (“''place''”), '''to''' (“''manner''”), etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ko ta ka'''
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| : <small>person 2s Q</small>
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| : ''Who are you?''
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| * '''to kihu ka'''
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| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
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| : ''What's the weather like?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''itla ka'''
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| : <small>this Q</small>
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| : ''What is this?''
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| * '''to taku tayo ka'''
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| : <small>manner brother 2s.GEN Q</small>
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| : ''How’s your brother?''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
| |
| ! ''kanyo''
| |
| ! ''Kala''
| |
| ! ''gloss''
| |
| ! ''English''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''object''
| |
| | '''ke mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>O dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''What does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''person''
| |
| | '''ko ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>person eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Who eats?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''possession''
| |
| | '''koyo mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>person-GEN dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Whose dog eats?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''manner''
| |
| | '''to mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>manner dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''How does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''place''
| |
| | '''mo mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>place dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Where does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''reason''
| |
| | '''nye mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>reason dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Why does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''time''
| |
| | '''ama mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>time dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''When does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''amount''
| |
| | '''uku mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>amount dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''which''
| |
| | '''ula mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>INDEF dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Which dog eats?''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ==Comparison==
| |
| In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
| |
| : <small>house 3s.GEN O 1s.GEN big-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
| |
| | |
| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ke mauam tayo yanahu'''
| |
| : <small>O flower.PL 2s.GEN yellow-EXT</small>
| |
| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
| |
| | |
| * '''mitala ke yetlam hikyahi'''
| |
| : <small>dog-INDEF O DIST-4pl old-DIM</small>
| |
| : ''Some dogs are less old (younger) than others.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| When comparing the amount of involvement of several participants in a transitive verb, an appositional construction is used with competing subjects, and complement clauses are used with competing objects:
| |
| | |
| * '''tsaneya ke ona pa’e naku hayo itsaha'''
| |
| : <small>Jane O mother other.than sister 3s.GEN love-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''Jane loves her mother more than her sister does.''
| |
| | |
| * '''imukuhi ke asua uahe tleno telaniha'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-blade-DIM O leather instead.of timber cut-nice-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''This knife cuts leather better than it cuts wood.''
| |
| | |
| ==Indirect Objects==
| |
| Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the recipient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of an adverbial preposition. The same strategy is also used to introduce other participants in oblique roles.
| |
| | |
| * '''ka’e''' – to; toward [Dative]
| |
| * '''ma’a''' – with; using [Instrumental] / with; together [Comitative]
| |
| * '''mue''' – without; lacking [Abessive]
| |
| * '''nya''' – for (the benefit of) [Benefactive] / by [Passive]
| |
| * '''-hue''' – at; in; on [Locative]
| |
| | |
| ===Dative===
| |
| Dative participants can be marked with '''ka’e''' (“''toward; to''”), '''nya''' (“''for; by''”), or be syntactically indicated.
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ntahi ke ina ka’e mita yeta'''
| |
| : <small>child O food toward dog give</small>
| |
| : ''The child gives food to a dog.''
| |
| | |
| * '''katiko nya ntakum tsani'''
| |
| : <small>old-AG for sibling-PL tell.story</small>
| |
| : ''The old man recites a story for the siblings.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ikema nya ena enke'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-task for P.1s easy</small>
| |
| : ''This task is easy for me.''
| |
| | |
| * '''teki ke kama na’amyo tanyaye'''
| |
| : <small>enemy O village 1pl.EXCL.GEN destroy-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ===Instrumental===
| |
| Instrumental participants can be marked with '''ma’a''' (“''with; using''”), '''nya''' (“''for; by''”), or be syntactically indicated.
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ona ke ntahi ma’a tlimu nohya'''
| |
| : <small>mother O child with blanket wrap</small>
| |
| : ''The mother wraps the child in a blanket.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsani nya ntaha moyapua'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-task for P.1s easy</small>
| |
| : ''The story has been written by the elder.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ===Comitative===
| |
| Comitative participants are marked with the preposition '''ma’a''' (“'''with; together'''”), and anticomitative (or abessive) participants are marked with the preposition '''mue''' (“''without''”).
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''na ma’a amyako nayo ke masa tasa'''
| |
| : <small>1s with friend 1s.GEN O deer hunt</small>
| |
| : ''I'm hunting deer with my friend.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ha ke naha mue ta ka’elaye ka'''
| |
| : <small>3s O river without 2s toward-MVT Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did she go to the river without you?''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ===Locative===
| |
| Locative participants can be marked with a variety of adverbial prepositions, most typically -'''hue''' (“''at; in; on''”). ''See also'': 5.1) [[Kala#Locative_Verbs|Locative verbs]].
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''taku nayo ke poti patlahue patsi'''
| |
| : <small>brother 1s.GEN O goat field-LOC herd</small>
| |
| : ''My brother is herding goats in the field.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''nam tlatsahue masetli'''
| |
| : <small>1pl fire-LOC dance-FUT</small>
| |
| : ''We will dance near (at) the fire.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| =Semantic Fields and Pragmatics=
| |
| '''Kala''', like all languages relies on the relationship of meanings instead of meanings in isolation. Additionally, morphemes tend to have a range of meanings that exist on a spectrum. A morpheme often can only be defined by its relationship to other morphemes within an utterance, or to other words of a similar semantic field.
| |
| | |
| One example would be in discussing temperature. Of course there is a system of degrees, but that is a quantitative statement, a qualitative statement would be more relative and open to interpretation.
| |
| | |
| [[File:Tlolo.png|400px|How to express temperature]]
| |
| | |
| English divides temperature into "hot, warm, cool, cold", while Kala has just '''sitsa, tlolo''', and '''manka'''. However, these can be expanded to be more specific;
| |
| | |
| * '''manka''' – cold
| |
| * '''tlolo''' – cool; warm (mild)
| |
| * '''sitsa''' – hot; heat
| |
| | |
| Using the augmentative -'''ha''' and the diminutive -'''hi''' adds even more nuance to expressing temperature. '''mankaha''' (or '''mankampa, mankahu''') being the coldest, and '''sitsaha''' (or '''sitsampa, sitsahu''') the hottest means that '''tloloha''' is closer to '''sitsahi''' and '''tlolohi''' is closer to '''mankahi'''. This means that '''tlolotso''' (mild-middle) is likely how someone would describe their ideal temperature.
| |
| | |
| * '''ya iyoma kihua tlolotso!'''
| |
| : <small>VOC PROX-day fine.weather mild-middle</small>
| |
| : ''Oh, how today’s weather is so mild!''
| |
| | |
| Of course, some meanings do exist in a binary state;
| |
| | |
| * '''asa''' - alive / '''kupa''' - dead
| |
| | |
| Meanings may also be divided into non-linear semantic space — e.g. color, social classes, directions, parts of the body, time, geographical features.
| |
| | |
| =Numbers=
| |
| '''Kala''' uses a base 10 number system. The basic numbers are as follows:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ==== Forming Larger Numbers ====
| |
| | |
| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
| |
| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
| |
| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
| |
| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
| |
| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
| |
| | |
| Long form numbers are used in formal situations, including financial transactions, especially involving large sums. Short form numbers are used in everyday speech and when calculating basic math.
| |
| | |
| ==== Other Number Forms ====
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! ordinal
| |
| ! multiple
| |
| ! fractional
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth || '''tiueta'o'''<br>duodecuple || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| === Math Operations ===
| |
| | |
| '''Kala''' math is fairly basic and relies on particles and verbs to express functions. Notable is the use of the copular '''a''' to express the result of an equation.
| |
| | |
| Addition uses '''ma''' (''and; also''). There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation. Subtraction uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a negative form of the smaller integer. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ta’o ma ya’o ke ka’o a'''
| |
| : <small>two and five O seven COP</small>
| |
| : ''2 + 5 = 7''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ka’o ma ta’ok ke ya’o a'''
| |
| : <small>seven and two-NEG O five COP</small>
| |
| : ''7 - 2 = 5''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| Multiplication uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a multiple form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation. Division uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a multiple-negative form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ka’o ma tita’o ke uema’o a'''
| |
| : <small>seven and multiple-two O fourteen COP</small>
| |
| : ''7 x 2 = 14''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''hata’o ma tisa’ok ke ma’o a'''
| |
| : <small>thrity-two and multiple-eight-NEG O four COP</small>
| |
| : ''32 ÷ 8 = 4''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| =Writing system=
| |
| Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
| |
| == ''Han Moya'' ==
| |
| | |
| '''Han Moya''' is an adaptation of [[wp:Hangul|Hangul]] for writing '''Kala'''. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns.
| |
| | |
| ==== consonants ====
| |
| | |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ</b></big></big></font>
| |
| : '''k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h'''
| |
| : /k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/
| |
| | |
| The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalization]]. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.
| |
| | |
| : Example:
| |
| | |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>까바</b></big></big></font> - '''nkapa''' - alcohol; liquor / <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>단가</b></big></big></font> - '''tanka''' - eagle; hawk; falcon
| |
| | |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>감바</b></big></big></font> - '''kampa''' - Cheers! / <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>쁘라</b></big></big></font> - '''mpula''' - lamp; lantern; light
| |
| | |
| ==== vowels ====
| |
| | |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font>
| |
| : '''a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i'''
| |
| : /a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/
| |
| | |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅘ</b></big></big></font> This is pronounced /wa/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because [[wp:List_of_Hangul_jamo|obsolete jamo]] are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.
| |
| | |
| ===Examples===
| |
| | |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>어하 거 거하 가먀터 하요 마아 타감 뱌사하먀여</b></big></big></font>
| |
| : '''eha ke keha kamyatle hayo ma’a tlakam pyasahamyaye'''
| |
| : [eːɦa kɛ keːɦa kamʲaːt͡ɬe haːjo maːʔa t͡ɬaːkam pʲaʃahamʲaːjɛ]
| |
| : <tt>P.3s O body stun-REL 3s.POSS with man-PL be.popular-AUG-CAUS-PST</tt>
| |
| : ''Her bewitching body made her very popular with men.''
| |
| | |
| =Examples=
| |
| | |
| * '''seko saye puani nahayo yalaye ma ke tsa’eto omoye'''
| |
| : <small>scorpion along bank river-GEN walk-PST and TOP across-way think-PST</small>
| |
| : ''A scorpion was walking along the bank of a river, wondering how to get to the other side.''
| |
| | |
| * '''haye seko ke tsola anyaye'''
| |
| : <small>sudden scorpion TOP fox see-PST</small>
| |
| : ''Suddenly, he saw a fox.''
| |
| | |
| * '''seko nya tsa’e naha amo ua’e muta tsolayo kanyoye'''
| |
| : <small>scorpion for across river carry on back fox-GEN ask-PST</small>
| |
| : ''He asked the fox to take him on his back across the river.''
| |
| | |
| * '''tsola kye ak na’eta amo yatli ta’ena kute nuesitli'''
| |
| : <small>fox IND.SP COP.NEG 1SG-P.2SG carry if.X.then.Y 2SG-P.1SG sting drown-FUT</small>
| |
| : ''The fox said, “No. If I do that, you’ll sting me, and I’ll drown.”''
| |
| | |
| * '''seko kye na’eta kute yatli nam nuesitli'''
| |
| : <small>scorpion IND.SP 1SG-P.2SG sting if.X.then.Y 1PL drown-FUT</small>
| |
| : ''The scorpion assured him, “If I do that, we’ll both drown.”''
| |
| | |
| * '''tsola pue omo nkataye'''
| |
| : <small>fox after think agree-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The fox thought about it and finally agreed.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ya seko ua’e muta tsolayo uayaye ma tsola yokomuye'''
| |
| : <small>VOC scorpion on back fox-GEN climb and fox swim-begin-PST</small>
| |
| : ''So the scorpion climbed up on his back, and the fox began to swim.''
| |
| | |
| * '''me tsa’etsohue nahayo seko ke tsola kuteye'''
| |
| : <small>however across-half-LOC river-GEN scorpion TOP fox sting-PST</small>
| |
| : ''But halfway across the river, the scorpion stung him.''
| |
| | |
| * '''tsola ike sunu ke sila hayo yeno ka’e seko muka kye nye ta’ena kuteye ka ima ta nuesitli'''
| |
| : <small>fox while poison TOP vein 3SG.POSS fill toward scorpion face IND.SP reason 2SG-P.1SG sting-PST Q now 2SG drown-FUT</small>
| |
| : ''As poison filled his veins, the fox turned to the scorpion and said, “Why did you do that? Now you’ll drown, too.”''
| |
| | |
| * '''seko kye na’i ke to nayo tlinapayek'''
| |
| : <small>scorpion IND.SP 1SG.REFL TOP way 1SG.POSS stop-able-PST.NEG</small>
| |
| : ''“I couldn’t help it,” said the scorpion. “It’s my nature.”''
| |
| | |
| =Lexicon=
| |
| ''See also'': [[Kala/lexicon|Lexicon]], [[Kala/lexicon/theme|Kala thematic lexicon]], and [[Kala/etymology|Kala etymological lexicon]].
| |
| | |
| A small sampling of Kala lexemes.
| |
| | |
| * '''pa''' - although; even though; even if
| |
| * '''pa'a''' - be well-ordered; regular; organized
| |
| * '''pina''' - be clever; intelligent; wise
| |
| * '''punka''' - fruit; fruit tree
| |
| * '''mpana''' - wide; broad; extensive; vast; width
| |
| * '''tanko''' - group; organization; team
| |
| * '''tepe''' - conceal; cover; shield; shelter
| |
| * '''tiku''' - extract; withdraw; pick-up
| |
| * '''tona''' - tuna
| |
| * '''ntela''' - interact; interplay; interrelated
| |
| * '''kanyo''' - question; ask; raise a question
| |
| * '''kemu''' - experience; undergo
| |
| * '''kinyo''' - intervene; get involved
| |
| * '''kona''' - dress; skirt
| |
| * '''kunye''' - moon; lunar; satellite
| |
| * '''kuya''' - green; foliage; verdant
| |
| * '''nkanu''' - short [in height and from end edge]
| |
| * '''makua''' - iron; press; smooth out
| |
| * '''menka''' - cotton
| |
| * '''mosukua''' - Moscow
| |
| * '''mutla''' - be absolute; unconditional
| |
| * '''napo''' - turnip
| |
| * '''ne''' - indirect object particle
| |
| * '''nota''' - lie; be in horizontal position; horizon
| |
| * '''nyalo''' - call; number; telephone
| |
| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
| |
| * '''sipanya''' - Spain
| |
| * '''sokyo''' - helium
| |
| * '''suama''' - sew; seam; mend; stitch
| |
| * '''hasu''' - conjecture; guess; supposition; assumption
| |
| * '''hilo''' - plaza; public square
| |
| * '''hueta''' - testicle
| |
| * '''tsame''' - accumulate; collect; gather; cluster
| |
| * '''tsemu''' - jam; marmalade
| |
| * '''tsitli''' - farm; ranch
| |
| * '''tsuto''' - be curly-haired
| |
| * '''tlato''' - recite rhythmically; chant; intone
| |
| * '''tlehe''' - esteemed; honest; candid; sincere
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| * '''tlokua''' - everybody; everyone
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| * '''ato''' - that way [over there]
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| * '''atsa''' - disc; rotate; wheel
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| * '''esue''' - fail; lose
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| * '''ila''' - sail; fly; navigate
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| * '''otso''' - wolf; lupine
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| * '''ulo''' - crop rotation
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| * '''uatli''' - inferior; of lower quality
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| * '''uetsi''' - dispirited downcast [idiom]; in low spirits
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| * '''yatso''' - ferment; brew; make honey; liquor
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| * '''yopi''' - mail; post [office]
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