User:Masako/pataka

Orthography

• Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, this page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.

Morphology

Kala is a mostly agglutinative language that makes extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, it can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed, and a single word can sometimes constitute an entire sentence.

Verbs

Stative verbs

A large proportion of intransitive verbs are stative verbs, taking over the role of English adjectives. Examples are taha "be big" and ahi "be small". This type of verb is most often used in non-predicative situations, performing an adjective-like function. With intransitive verbs it describes the subject; with transitive verbs it usually describes the patient or theme and is thus roughly comparable to a passive participle in meaning. Essentially, Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives.

Relative

In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix -tle (or -le if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns who, what, which, where are not used in Kala as in English.

• yalapa - to be able to walk produces: yalapatle - who/which/that can walk
• yalapak - to not be able to walk produces: yalapanketle - who/which/that can't walk

This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.

• na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya

1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know

I know the man who is coming to lunch.

• ke naka patlole pako

O woman sweep-REL young

The woman who is sweeping is young.

The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative -k.

• itsaka na sutahuetle

PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL

This is the house in which I live.

• itsaka na sutahueyetlek

PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG

This is the house in which I did not live.

Adpositionals

Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:

• pahe - against; touching
• pa'e - apart from; other than; except for
• paye - beyond; exceeding; farther than
• pue - after; back; behind; rear
• tahe - below; beneath; under
• ka'e - to; towards; at [moving toward]
• kaye - around; encircling; surrounding
• mahe - around; approximate; close to
• ma'a - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
• ma'e - before; in front
• maye - between; among

• nahe - in [located inside of]; internal
• nyaue - outside of; exterior to
• sahe - across; opposite; other side
• saye - along; following [a line]
• hue / -hue - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
• tsa'e - across; through
• ua'e - above; over / on
• uaye - from [moving out of or away from]
• ya'e - near; close to
• yomo - to the right of
• yoso - to the left of

• na ke ito yamahue anyapa

1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL

I can see a tree on the hill.

• ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti

child-PL outside.of house play

The children are playing outside of the house.

Word formation

Compounding

New nouns are usually created through head-initial compounding, using both nominal and verbal stems as the second, dependent element of the compound. The resulting lexical entries usually behave as single phonological words, which, however, have four full syllables: kuatlatloha "grass snake". Compounding of more than two elements is not common.

• kayapusu - "earthquake" > kaya - earth + pusu - vibrate
• asuaseka - "leather" > asua - skin + seka - dry

There are also numerous affixes used to form new meanings. A few examples are;

• tiyasu - "bakery" > tiya - bread + -su - market; shop
• onyomo - "school" > onyo - learn + -mo - place; location
• kuhasa - "kitchen" > kuha - cook + -sa - room; chamber
• pyetampu - "egg-shaped" > pyeta - egg + -mpu - shape; form

Derivation

Verbalization

Causative verbs (as well as achievement verbs) can be formed from other verbs by adding -mya (from muya - "do, make, cause") or -la (from ela - "become; change into; turn into"). This type of derivation is fairly common; however, verbs created in this way are syntactically defective and tend to appear only in serial verb constructions.

• tinamya - "bend" < tina - be bent
• pitamya - "hollow out" < pita - be hollow; void
• enomya - "annoy, bother" < eno - be angry
• tsipuela - "slow down" < tsipue - be slow
• kyolola - "speed up" < kyolo - be quick

Intensive verbs can be formed from other verbs by adding -mpa (from mpa - "many; much; very"), or more commonly -hu (from kyohu - "be drastic; extreme; aggressive").

• ketsahu - "dismiss, reject, repudiate" < ketsa - doubt
• amyampa - "fall in love with" < amya - be fond of; like; prefer (of people)

Adjective-like stative verbs which name an associated quality may be formed from nouns by -n (from no - "thing" (-ish, -ly, -ous)).

• timan - "be cruel, be bloody" < tima - blood
• amyan - "be welcoming, be hospitable" < amya - be fond of

Nominalization

Agentive

Nouns referring to a human subject of a verb (usually in a habitual sense) can be formed with the agentive suffix -ko (from ko - "individual; person"). This suffix changes to -tlo when a velar stop is present in the preceding syllable.

• kitlako - "craftsman" < kitla - create; invent; make-up
• sutako - "inhabitant (of)" < suta - live; reside; dwell; inhabit; settle
• yekatlo - "unmarried young adult" < yeka - be separate, be on one's own
• makatlo - "musician" < maka - music; play ~; tune
• tsaniko - "storyteller" < tsani - recite, tell (a story)

Instrumental

Instrument nouns and names for tools and other inanimates can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by adding the suffix -nyo (from mayo - "device; equipment; tool").

• hitanyo - "atlatl (spear-thrower)" < hita - throw; cast; expel
• amonyo - "handle (for carrying)" < amo - transport; carry
• kusunyo - "clasp, brooch, fibula" < kusu - squeeze
• toponyo - "lock" < topo - door; gate

Locative

Location nouns can be formed from both nouns and verbs by several suffixes. These indicate specific places where either something happens, or something resides there are a few affixes which modify both verbs and nouns.

-mo (from mo - "location; place; site"). This suffix is used to form the general idea of where something happens or resides.

• tanamo - "battlefield; boxing ring; wrestling mat, etc." < tana - fight; combat
• uelomo - "bicycle-place; bike path; bike rack, etc." < uelo - bicycle; bike
• inamo - "eat-place; dining room; restaurant" [This can also mean food-place; pantry, etc.] < ina - food; eat
• onyomo - "learn-place; school" < onyo - learn; study

-su (from suku - "market; shop; store"). This suffix is used to specify a business where items are produced and/or sold.

• tiyasu - "bread-shop; bakery" < tiya - bread
• inasu - "food-market; grocery store; restaurant" < ina - food; eat
• uelosu - "bicycle-shop" < uelo - bicycle; bike

-kyo (from hakyo - "college; school; university"). This suffix is used to specify a location where students learn. This can also be used to indicate a school of thought, or ideology.

• tanakyo - "dojo; martial arts training academy; etc." < tana - fight; combat
• kuhakyo - "culinary-school; chef’s academy" < kuha - cook; prepare food
• tsiyakyo - "liberalism" < tsiya - freedom; liberty
• ya'akyo - "medical-school" < ya'a - medicine; drug; cure

-sa (from sala - "chamber; room; section"). This is more specific than -mo and used primarily for spaces inside buildings.

• kuhasa - "cook-room; kitchen" < kuha - cook; prepare food
• mokusa - "sleep-room; bedroom" < moku - sleep; rest
• inasa - "eat-room; dining room" < ina - food; eat
• onyosa - "learn-room; classroom" < onyo - learn; study

Diminutive

Diminutive nouns and endearment terms can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix -hi (from ahi - "few; small"). This becomes -ki after a syllable that contains a glottal fricative.

• mukuhi - "blade" < muku - knife
• umahi - "foal" < uma - horse; equine
• mitahi - "puppy" < mita - dog; canine
• ohuaki - "indulgence" < ohua - luxurious; extravagant

Augmentative

Augmentative nouns can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix -ha (from taha - "big; large; grand"). This becomes -ka after a syllable that contains a glottal fricative.

• kamaha - "city" < kama - village; town
• ohaka - "dislocate one's jaw" < oha - yawn; open one's mouth
• mosaha - "epic; novel" < mosa - book; letter; scroll
• tiniha - "hurricane" < tini - spiral; whorl

Honorific

Honorific nouns can be formed from other nouns by prefixing o-.

• omasa - "stag" < masa - deer; cervine
• okama - "capital" < kama - town; village

Syntax

Simple sentences

Intransitive clauses

Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.

• nta'i moku

baby sleep

The baby sleeps.

• mita ina

dog eat

The dog eats.

• sama nala

sun shine

The sun shines.

• kamahi ke naha ya'e

town-DIM O river be.near

There is a village near the river.

• ke apua muyapua

O song do-PFV

The song has been sung.

Transitive clauses

Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.

• ona ke matla kuha

mother O stew cook

The mother is cooking stew.

• tasako ke masala yake

hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase

The hunters are chasing some deer.

• kyali ke itohuatla peha

spear O tree-oak pierce

The spear pierces the oak tree.

• tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata

hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill

The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.

Predication

Nominal predicates are formed with the copula a, using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.

• tsola ke haya a

fox O animal COP

The fox is an animal. (grammatical)

• tsola haya

fox animal

The fox is an animal. (idiomatic)

• itlaka ke taya nayo a

PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP

This man is my husband. (grammatical)

• itlaka ke taya nayo

PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS

This man is my husband. (idiomatic)

Oblique participants

Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.

Dative and benefactive

Dative participants are marked with the preposition nya ‘for, by, via’.

• ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta

child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give

The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.

• ikema nya na tlahi

PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy

This task is easy for me.

Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition nya ‘for, by, via’.

• mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu

holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite

The shaman recites a story for the siblings.

Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using nya:

• tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye

enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST

The enemies destroyed our village.

Instrumental

Instrumental participants are marked with the preposition wo ‘with, by, using’.

• ona ke nta'i hayo ma'a tlimu nohya

mother O baby 3sg.POSS with blanket wrap

The mother wraps her baby in a blanket.

In passive sentences, agents may be reintroduced with the preposition nya ‘by’:

• ke aha nya ntahi apua'u

O melody by child sing-PFV

The song has been sung by the child.

Negation

Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix -k (or -nke), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like tlok ak (AG-NEG COP-NEG) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).

• intahi ke nok onyotlik

PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG

This child will learn nothing.

• mita inyak

dog hunger-NEG

The dog is not hungry.

The suffix -nke also marks the abessive, meaning without, or lacking.

• ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye

3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST

He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.

Interrogatives

There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.

Passives

The passive voice is formed by prefixing e- (patient marker) to pronouns, and the object marker ke for nouns, or nya "for, by, via". Compare these simple sentences:

• matla kuha

stew cook

The stew cooks.

• ha yatsi

3sg bite

She bites.

• ha yapo

3sg build

She builds.

• ke matla kuhapua

O stew cook-PFV

The stew has been cooked.

• eha yatsi

P.3sg bite

He is bitten.

• etla nya ha yapo

P.4sg by 3sg build

It is built by him.

Kala can also passivize some intransitive verbs (especially verbs that describe activities rather than states). This has the effect of creating an impersonal predicate without any syntactic subject, often carrying existential semantics.

• ke kema

O work

There is work to do. (lit. it is work)

• ke hina kyo'a

P.4sg by 3sg build

It's quiet around here. (lit. here is quieted)

Reflexives and reciprocals

Kala has reflexive and reciprocal pronoun forms, and as such declarative phrases are regular and predictable.

• na'i sepaye

1sg.REFL injure-PST

I hurt myself.

• ha'i tlela

3sg.REFL bathe

She bathes herself.

• kanku ke onta nayo itsa

3pl.RECP O parent 1sg.POSS love

My parents love each other.

• na'anku amyapak

1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG

We (but not you) are not able to like each other.

Complex sentences

Clause coordination

Clause-level conjunctions such as ku "and", ua "or", or ehe "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.

• tahi tohyo ku nahi pina

boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent

The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.

• ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai

now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM

Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.

Coordination of noun phrases

Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction ma "and" (sometimes "with").

• yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya

day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see

I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.

• kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya

squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make

The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.

• ona ma ota kyosanku

mother and father fornicate-RECP

Mother and father have sex [with each other].

• ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli

2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT

You and I will go to the forest together.

Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction ua "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction ue "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.

• ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo

2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM

You may eat an apple or a pear.

• tsola ue otso itsikua mataye

fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST

It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.

Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with ehe "but; however" (or me more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.

• yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya

day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive

The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.

• na itlaka mek inaka unya

1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know

I know this man, but not this woman.

Relative clauses

Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -tle (or -le if the last syllable has tl). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:

• na ka naka amyatle pesoue

1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL

I want to meet a girl who is friendly.

• naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua

sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV

My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.

• kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli

3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT

They who fight well will defeat the enemy.