Kala: Difference between revisions
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* '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.'' | * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.'' | ||
* '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.'' | * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.'' | ||
=== Attributives === | |||
The attributive form of a verb is used in non-predicative situations, performing an adjective-like function. With intransitive verbs it describes the subject; with transitive verbs it usually describes the patient or theme and is thus roughly comparable to a passive participle in meaning. Essentially, Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases. | |||
{{Col-begin}} | |||
{{Col-break}} | |||
* '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small> | |||
** ''The dog hungers.'' | |||
** ''The dog is hungry.'' | |||
** ''The hungry dog.'' | |||
** ''A hungry dog.'' | |||
{{Col-break}} | |||
* '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small> | |||
** ''The house is a little red.'' | |||
** ''The light-red house.'' | |||
** ''A pale red house.'' | |||
{{Col-break}} | |||
* '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small> | |||
** ''The coat is wet.'' | |||
** ''The wet coat.'' | |||
** ''A wet coat.'' | |||
{{Col-break}} | |||
* '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small> | |||
** ''The horses are extremely large.'' | |||
** ''The very big horses.'' | |||
{{Col-end}} | |||
==== comparison ==== | |||
In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.” | |||
{{col-begin}} | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' | |||
: <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small> | |||
: ''His house is bigger than mine.'' | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''ke mauam tayo yanaha''' | |||
: <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small> | |||
: ''Your flowers are the most yellow.'' | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
* '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha''' | |||
: <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small> | |||
: ''This building is newer than your home.'' | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
==== relative ==== | |||
In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English. | |||
* '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk'' | |||
* '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk'' | |||
{{col-begin}} | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object. | |||
* '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya''' | |||
: <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small> | |||
: ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.'' | |||
* '''ke naka patlole pako''' | |||
: <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small> | |||
: ''The woman who is sweeping is young.'' | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''. | |||
* '''itsaka na sutahuetle''' | |||
: <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small> | |||
: ''This is the house in which I live.'' | |||
* '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek''' | |||
: <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small> | |||
: ''This is the house in which I did not live.'' | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
= Syntax = | = Syntax = | ||
[[Category:Conlangs]] | [[Category:Conlangs]] |
Revision as of 17:11, 6 January 2017
The Kala conlang...
Introduction
Kala is a personal conlang (actually more of an artlang), based on my aesthetic preferences, not attached to any conworld or conculture. This language draws on natlangs (natural language), other conlangs, and of course imagination. Kala was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. Kala’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of Kala lexemes are derived or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as Ajara (a cipherlang from my youth), Qatama (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
Characteristics
Kala has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are content words, while particles (and others) tend to be only functional. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be ina /iːˈna/ ‘food; to eat’. Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
- muya ka - do Q - (What are you) doing?
- ina - eat - (I am) eating.
- tamatse - good-seem - (That looks) good.
- ueha ka - want Q - (Do you) want (some)?
- nyasak - thank-NEG - No, thank (you).
Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.
Borrowing
Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
See also: etymology
- pato – duck (Anatidae); from Spanish pato
- kala – to speak, talk, converse; from Arabic takallama
- myonta – to allow, permit; from Finnish myöntää
- na – I, me; from Arabic ʾanā
- tsenka – orange; from Chinese chéng
- uasi – to take, get, acquire; from Lakota wasichu
- a – to be, exist, yes; from Japanese aru
Phonology
Consonants
- Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.
Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m (m) | n (n) | ɲ (ny) | |||
Plosive | p~b (p) | t~d (t) | k~g (g) | ʔ ( ' ) | ||
Affricate | ts~t͡ʃ (ts) | t͡ɬ~tl (tl) | ||||
Continuant | s~ʃ (s) | l~ɾ (l) | h~ɦ (h) | |||
Semivowel | j (y) | w (u) |
- Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
- Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
- Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.
Vowels
Front | Back | |
---|---|---|
Close | i~ɪ (i) | u~u: (u) |
Mid | e~ɛ (e) | o~o: (o) |
Open | a~a: (a) |
Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
Diphthongs
Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
Phonotactics
Kala words are typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
- /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and toponyms).
Syllables
a | e | i | o | u | ua | ue | ya | ye | yo | ai | ao | uai | yao | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p | (m)pa | (m)pe | (m)pi | (m)po | (m)pu | pua | pue | pya | pye | pyo | pai | pao | puai | pyao |
t | (n)ta | (n)te | (n)ti | (n)to | tai | tao | ||||||||
k | (n)ka | (n)ke | (n)ki | (n)ko | (n)ku | kua | kue | kya | kye | kyo | kai | kao | kuai | kyao |
m | ma | me | mi | mo | mu | mua | mue | mya | mye | myo | mai | mao | muai | myao |
n | na | ne | ni | no | nu | nua | nue | nya | nye | nyo | nai | nao | nuai | nyao |
s | sa | se | si | so | su | sua | sue | sai | sao | suai | ||||
h | ha | he | hi | ho | hu | hua | hue | hya | hye | hyo | hai | hao | huai | hyao |
ts | tsa | tse | tsi | tso | tsu | tsua | tsue | tsai | tsao | tsuai | ||||
tl | tla | tle | tli | tlo | tlai | tlao | ||||||||
l | la | le | li | lo | lai | lao | ||||||||
- | a | e | i | o | u | ua | ue | ya | ye | yo | ai | ao | uai | yao |
Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.
Stress
Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).
Orthography
- Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, this page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
Morphology
Nouns
Nouns in Kala are inflected only for number. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
Number
- Most nouns in Kala distinguish singular and plural number. There are several different “regular” ways to form the plural, which are to a certain degree predictable from the phonological shape of the singular form. Nouns can be marked plural (PL) by -m (or -lo if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
- In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the Kala sentence mita ha'o a "dog three exist" keeps the word mita "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
- The collective plural is marked by tli-, derived from tatli, meaning "group; collection; gathering". It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL).
- ata - name > atalo - names
- mita – dog > mitam - dogs > tlimita – a pack of dogs
- yama – mountain > tliyamalo – mountain ranges
- tsaka – house > tlitsaka – neighborhood
- puku – clothing > tlipuku – wardrobe
Gender
Gender is not normally marked but can be by -na (FEM), -ta (MASC), or nouns such as naka, tlaka, nahi, or tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc. A gender neutral suffix, -nta may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
Pronouns
Kala agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun na'am which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc.
Personal pronouns:
|
Modifiers:
|
Other pronouns include:
|
Agent | Patient | Reflexive | Possessive | Reciprocal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1sg | na | ena | na'i | nayo | - |
2sg | ta | eta | ta'i | tayo | - |
3sg | ha | eha | ha'i | hayo | - |
4sg | tla | etla | tla'i | tlayo | - |
1pl 1pl exclusive |
nam na'am |
enam ena'am |
nami na'ami |
namyo na'amyo |
nanku na'anku |
2pl | tam | etam | tami | tamyo | tanku |
3pl | kam | ekam | kami | kamyo | kanku |
4pl | tlam | etlam | tlami | tlamyo | tlanku |
Determiners & Demostratives
The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show deixis. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between proximal or first person (objects near to the speaker), medial or second person (objects near to the addressee), and distal or third person (objects far from both).
Examples:
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Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
|
Correlatives
Proximal i- |
Medial ua- |
Distal ye- |
Inclusive -kua |
Negative -k |
Indefinite -la | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mo (place) |
hina here |
uana there |
yemua over there |
mokua everywhere |
mok nowhere |
mola somewhere; anywhere |
ko (person) |
iko this person |
uako that person |
yeko that person (over there) |
tlokua everyone |
tlok no one |
kola someone; anyone |
uku (amount) |
iku this much |
uaku that much |
- | kua all; every |
ok none |
ula some; any |
ama (time) |
ima now, at present |
uama then; at that time |
- | kuama always |
amak never |
tlama sometime; anytime |
so (kind, type) |
iso this kind |
so'o that kind |
yeso that kind (over there) |
sokua all kinds |
sok no kind (at all) |
sola some/any kind |
no (thing) |
itla this |
uatla that |
yetla that (over there) |
nokua everything |
nok nothing; none |
nola something; anything |
to (manner, way) |
yoto thus; like this; this way |
uato that way |
ato that way (over there) |
tokua every way |
tok no way |
tola somehow; anyway |
Numbers
Kala | number | English | Kala | number | English | Kala | number | English |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ye'o | 0 | zero | tsa'o | 6 | six | nya'o | 500 | five hundred |
na'o | 1 | one | ka'o | 7 | seven | tle'o | 103 | (one) thousand |
ta'o | 2 | two | pa'o | 8 | eight | mue'o | 104 | ten thousand |
ha'o | 3 | three | sa'o | 9 | nine | kye'o | 105 | (one) hundred thousand |
ma'o | 4 | four | ue'o | 10 | ten | nte'o | 106 | (one) million |
ya'o | 5 | five | nye'o | 100 | (one) hundred | hue'o | 109 | (one) billion |
Forming Larger Numbers
- uena'o - eleven / 11
- taue'o - twenty / 20
- nyeka'o - one hundred seven / 107
- hanyetauetsa'o (long form) / hatatsa'o (short form) - three hundred twenty six / 326
- tsatletauema'o - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
Other Number Forms
Kala | number | English | ordinal | multiple | fractional |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
na'o | 1 | one | kina'o first |
tina'o once |
- |
ueta'o | 12 | twelve | kiueta'o twelfth |
tiueta'o twelve times |
iueta'o a twelfth |
yauema'o (yama'o) |
54 | fifty four | kiyama'o fifty fourth |
tiyama'o 54 times |
iyama'o a fifty fourth |
nyetsa'o | 106 | one hundred (and) six | kinyetsa'o 106th |
tinyetsa'o 106 times |
inyetsa'o a 106th |
katle'o | 7000 | seven thousand | kikatle'o seven thousandth |
tikatle'o 7000 times |
ikatle'o 1/7000 |
Math Operations
- ha'o ma ya'o ke pa'o a
- 3 and 5 O 8 COP
- Three plus five is eight.
- tsa'o ma ya'ok ke na'o a
- 6 and 5-NEG O 1 COP
- Six and five-less is one.
- ha'o ma tima'o ke ueta'o a
- 3 and multiple-4 O 12 COP
- Three times four is twelve.
- tama'o ma ha'o ke pa'o yeka
- 24 and 3 O 8 division
- Twenty-four divided by three is eight.
Verbs
Kala relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the active and the stative. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning; their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adverbial, and plural endings are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)
Example:
Verb Stem | Size/Importance | Mood | Aspect | Tense | Negative |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
empa | -hi | -pa | -nko | -ye | -k |
run | DIM | ABIL | PROG | PST | NEG |
- na empahipankoyek
- 1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG
- I was not able to keep jogging.
Passivity
The passive voice is formed by prefixing e- (patient marker) to pronouns, and the object marker ke for nouns, or nya "for, by, via".
|
|
Tense
Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past (-ye) and future (-tli) tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("is about to..."), distant future ("will...in a long while"), recent past ("just ..."), and remote past ("...a long while ago"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings -ha and -hi.
- The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb ima, "now; at this time":
- ima mita ina - now dog eat - The dog is eating right now.
- If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
- yomaye nam ina - yesterday 1pl eat - We ate yesterday.
Kala | gloss | English | |
---|---|---|---|
Present | mita ina | dog eat | The dog eats. |
Past | mita inaye | dog eat-PST | The dog ate. |
Recent Past | mita inayehi or -hye |
dog eat-REC | The dog just ate. (action just finished) |
Remote Past | mita inayeha | dog eat-REM | The dog ate long ago. (before the lifetime of the speaker) |
Future | mita inatli | dog eat-FUT | The dog will eat. |
Immediate Future | mita inatlihi or -tlai |
dog eat-IMM | The dog will eat soon. (within the day) |
Distant Future | mita inatliha | dog eat-DIS | The dog will eat a long while from now. (months from now) |
Aspect
There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the continuous [CONT], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with -nko, from nkoso - "to continue; proceed; progress". The perfective aspect indicates that an action is completed [PFV]. It is often translated by the English present perfect (have done some-thing). It is marked with -pua, from opua - "to end; finish; complete". The inchoative aspect refers to the beginning of a state [INCH]. It is marked with -mu, from mula - "to begin; start; initiate". The frequentative aspect refers to a repeated action [FREQ]. It is marked with -nua, from nua - "frequent; often; regular".
Kala | gloss | English | |
---|---|---|---|
Progressive | mita inanko | dog eat-CONT | The dog is eating. |
Perfective | mita inapua | dog eat-PFV | The dog has eaten. |
Inchoative | mita inamu | dog eat-INCH | The dog begins to eat. |
Frequentative | mita inanua | dog eat-FREQ | The dog eats often. |
Mood
Negative
The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –k or –nke (when the last syllable contains /k/).
- mita inayek - dog eat-PST-NEG - The dog did not eat.
- mita mokunke - dog sleep-NEG - The dog does not sleep.
Attributives
The attributive form of a verb is used in non-predicative situations, performing an adjective-like function. With intransitive verbs it describes the subject; with transitive verbs it usually describes the patient or theme and is thus roughly comparable to a passive participle in meaning. Essentially, Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
|
|
|
|
comparison
In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
|
|
|
relative
In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix -tle (or -le if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns who, what, which, where are not used in Kala as in English.
- yalapa - to be able to walk produces: yalapatle - who/which/that can walk
- yalapak - to not be able to walk produces: yalapanketle - who/which/that can't walk
This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
|
The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative -k.
|