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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] | | * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] |
| | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] | | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] | | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| * [[Kala/syllables|syllables]]
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| * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] | | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| = Introduction =
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| == Word Order ==
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
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| AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[Wikipedia:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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| * '''mita tlaka anya''' - <small>dog man see</small> - ''The dog sees the man.''
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| * '''tlaka mita anya''' - <small>man dog see</small> - ''The man sees the dog.''
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
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| === Comparisons ===
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| When things being compared have equal characteristics, the comparison of equality is used.
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| * '''mita kue tahi taha''' - <small>dog like boy big</small> - ''The dog is as big as the boy.''
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| * '''mpa'a kue mosa niha''' - <small>movie like book nice</small> - ''The movie is as good as the book.''
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| If two things are not equal, they are unequal.
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| * '''nanku ke manyo itlok''' - <small>1pl.RECP O height same-NEG</small> - ''We are not the same height''.
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| * '''ta kue na manyoha''' - <small>2sg like 1sg height-AUG</small> - ''You are taller than I.''
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| * '''ke no ta'o poku itlok''' - <small>O thing two cost same-NEG</small> - ''The two items do not cost the same.''
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| * '''potonyo kue ninka mpahaka''' - <small>photo-tool as television expensive-AUG</small> - ''The camera is more expensive than the television.''
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| === Questions ===
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| There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers. Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
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| * '''mita ina''' - <small>dog eat</small> - ''The dog eats.''
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| ** '''mita ina ka''' - <small>dog eat Q</small> - ''Does the dog eat?''
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| The other type of question contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
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| * '''ke mita ina ka''' - <small>O dog eat Q</small> - ''What does the dog eat?''
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| * '''ko ina ka''' - <small>person eat Q</small> - ''Who eats?''
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| * '''koyo mita ina ka''' - <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> - ''Whose dog eats?''
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| * '''to mita ina ka''' - <small>manner dog eat Q</small> - ''How does the dog eat?''
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| * '''mo mita ina ka''' - <small>place dog eat Q</small> - ''Where does the dog eat?''
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| * '''nye mita ina ka''' - <small>reason dog eat Q</small> - ''Why does the dog eat?''
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| * '''ama mita ina ka''' - <small>time dog eat Q</small> - ''When does the dog eat?''
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| * '''uku mita ina ka''' - <small>amount dog eat Q</small> - ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
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| * '''ula mita ina ka''' - <small>any dog eat Q</small> - ''Which dog eats?''
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| == Borrowing ==
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| Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| * '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
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| * '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| * '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[Wiktionary:pato|''pato'']]
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| * '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[Wiktionary:橙|''chéng'']]
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| * '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[Wiktionary:wasi'chu|''wasichu'']]
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| * '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[Wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
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| * '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[Wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| == Parts of Speech ==
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| '''Kala''' has three parts of speech, each with several subgroups. Nouns and verbs are substantive, while particles tend to be only functional.
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| # '''noma''' - nouns
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| ## '''nkalo''' - personal pronouns
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| ## '''uatse''' - demonstratives
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| # '''uati''' - verbs
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| ## '''pusa''' - adverbials
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| ## '''tatse''' - locative verbs (prepositions)
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| ## '''keyo''' - descriptive verbs (adjectives)
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| # '''peya''' - particles
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| ## '''nita''' - interjections
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| ## '''eka''' - affixes
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| = Morphology =
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| == Nouns ==
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| === Number ===
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| ==== general plural ====
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| Kala does not require the plural be marked if it is understood through context, and only animate pronouns are marked, whereas inanimate nouns need not be marked. General plurals are formed with –'''m''' (or –'''lo''' if the final syllable contains '''m''').
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| * '''mita / mitam''' - dog / dogs
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| * '''kuma / kumalo''' - bear / bears
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| ==== mass nouns ====
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| Mass nouns include liquids, powders, and substances, such as '''maya''' (water), '''hyeka''' (sand), and '''tleno''' (wood). They do not normally require determiners or the plural. However, one may add these to indicate specific examples or different types:
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| * '''tlenom''' – woods (e.g. various kinds)
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| * '''mayam''' - waters (e.g. various locations)
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| ==== collective ====
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| The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''group; collection; gathering''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural ('''COL''').
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| * '''mita''' – dog / '''tlimita''' – pack of dogs
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| * '''yama''' – mountain / '''tliyamalo''' – mountain range
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| * '''tsaka''' – house / '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
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| * '''puku''' – clothing / '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
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| ==== other quantifiers ====
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| === Personal Pronouns ===
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. '''Kala''' personal pronouns also encode clusivity. That is, there are different words for "we" depending on whether the speaker is including the person spoken to or not. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
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| |+ nkalo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Agent
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| ! Patient
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| ! Reflexive
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| ! Possessive
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| ! Reciprocal
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| |-
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| ! 1sg
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| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' ||
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| |-
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| ! 2sg
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| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' ||
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| |-
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| ! 3sg
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| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' ||
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| |-
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| ! 4sg
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| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' ||
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| |-
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| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
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| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| ! 2pl
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| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 3pl
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| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 4pl
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| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |}
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| == Verbs ==
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| === Tense ===
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| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past and future tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
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| * The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
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| :'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
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| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
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| :Example: '''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ eme
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| ! Present
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| | '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
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| |-
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| ! Past
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| | '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
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| ! Recent Past
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| | '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''
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| ! Remote Past
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| | '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate a long while ago.''
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| ! Future
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| | '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
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| ! Immediate Future
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| | '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''
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| |-
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| ! Distant Future
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| | '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''
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| |}
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| === Aspect ===
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| The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfecive]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ ti'a
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| ! Progressive
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| | '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
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| ! Perfective
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| | '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
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| |-
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| ! Inchoative
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| | '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
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| ! Frequentative
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| | '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
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| |}
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| === Mood ===
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| ==== negative ====
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| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
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| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
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| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
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| == Particles ==
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| === Conjunctions ===
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| * '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well
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| * '''ehe''' ('''me''') - but; yet; however
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| * '''ua''' - or; either
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| * '''ue''' - either X or Y
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| * '''uenke''' ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
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| * '''yatli''' - therefore; if X then Y
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| * '''yema''' - both X and Y
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| === Function words ===
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| === Interjections ===
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| [[Category:Conlangs]] | | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
