Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

Consonants
	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m (m)	n (n)		ɲ (ny)
Plosive	p~b (p)	t~d (t)			k~g (k)	ʔ ( ' )
Affricate		ts~t͡ʃ (ts)	t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant		s~ʃ (s)	l~ɾ (l)			h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel				j (y)	w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
	Front	Back
Close	i~ɪ (i)	u~ʊ (u)
Mid	e~ɛ (e)	o~o: (o)
Open	a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao
p	(m)pa	(m)pe	(m)pi	(m)po	(m)pu	pua	pue	pya	pye	pyo	pai	pao	puai	pyao
t	(n)ta	(n)te	(n)ti	(n)to							tai	tao
k	(n)ka	(n)ke	(n)ki	(n)ko	(n)ku	kua	kue	kya	kye	kyo	kai	kao	kuai	kyao
m	ma	me	mi	mo	mu	mua	mue	mya	mye	myo	mai	mao	muai	myao
n	na	ne	ni	no	nu	nua	nue	nya	nye	nyo	nai	nao	nuai	nyao
s	sa	se	si	so	su	sua	sue				sai	sao	suai
h	ha	he	hi	ho	hu	hua	hue	hya	hye	hyo	hai	hao	huai	hyao
ts	tsa	tse	tsi	tso	tsu	tsua	tsue				tsai	tsao	tsuai
tl	tla	tle	tli	tlo							tlai	tlao
l	la	le	li	lo							lai	lao
-	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants	p	t	k	m	n	s	h	ts	tl	l
Vowels	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= Introduction =
+= introduction =
-== Borrowing ==
+= phonology =
-Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
+== consonants ==
+* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
-* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [''takallama'']
+{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
-* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [''ʾanā'']
-* '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [''pato'']
-* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [''chéng'']
-* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [''wasichu'']
-* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [''myöntää'']
-* '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [''aru'']
-== Parts of Speech ==
-'''Kala''' has three parts of speech, each with several subgroups. Nouns and verbs are substantive, while particles tend to be only functionary.
-# '''noma''' - nouns
-## '''nkalo''' - personal pronouns
-## '''uatse''' -  demonstratives
-# '''uati''' - verbs
-## '''pusa''' - adverbials
-## '''tatse''' - locative verbs (prepositions)
-## '''keyo''' - descriptive verbs (adjectives)
-# '''peya''' - particles
-## '''nita''' - interjections
-## '''eka''' - affixes
-= Phonology =
-{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
 |+Consonants
-!rowspan=2|
+!
-!rowspan=2|Labial
+!Labial
 !colspan=2|Alveolar
-!rowspan=2|Palatal
+!Palatal
-!colspan=2|Velar
+!Velar
-!rowspan=2|Glottal
+!Glottal
-|-style="font-size: x-small;"
-!central
-!lateral
-!plain
-!labialized
 |-
 ! Nasal
-|m ('''m''')||n ('''n''')|| ||ɲ ('''ny''')|| || ||
+| m ('''m''')
+|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
+| ɲ ('''ny''')
+|
+|
 |-
 ! Plosive
-|p~b ('''p''')||t~d ('''t''')|| || ||k~g ('''k''')|| ||ʔ ('''`''')
+| p~b ('''p''')
+|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
+|
+| k~g ('''k''')
+| ʔ (''' ' ''')
 |-
 ! Affricate
-| ||ts ('''ts''')||t͡ɬ ('''tl''')||t͡ʃ ('''ts''')|| || ||
+|
+| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
+|
+|
+|
 |-
 ! Continuant
-| ||s ('''s''')||l~r ('''l''')||ʃ ('''s''')|| || ||h~ɦ ('''h''')
+|
+| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
+|
+|
+| h~ɦ ('''h''')
 |-
 ! Semivowel
-| || || ||j ('''y''')|| ||w ('''u''')||
+|
+|colspan=2|
+| j ('''y''')
+| w ('''u''')
+|
 |}
-{| class="wikitable"
+The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
-|+Vowels
-!
-!Front
-!Central
-!Back
-|- style="text-align:center;"
-!Close
-|i || || u
-|- style="text-align:center;"
-!Mid
-|e || || o
-|- style="text-align:center;"
-!Open
-| || a ||
-|}
-== Consonants ==
-* '''Plosives''': /p t k ʔ/ [b d g ɢ]
-* '''Nasals''': /m n ɲ/
-* '''Continuants''': /s l h/ [ʃ ɾ ɦ]
-* '''Affricates''': /t͡s t͡ɬ/ [t͡ʃ t͡l]
-* '''Semivowels''': /j w/
-<br>
 * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
 * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
 * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
-<small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
+=== free variation ===
+Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
-== Vowels ==
+=== Sound Changes ===
+The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
+== vowels ==
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+Vowels
+!
+!'''Front'''
+!'''Back'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Close'''
+|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Mid'''
+|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Open'''
+|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
+|}
 '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
-=== Diphthongs ===
+=== diphthongs ===
+Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
-Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
-== Phonotactics ==
-=== Syllable Structure ===
-'''Kala''' syllable structure is (('''N''')'''C''')(''y, u'')'''V'''('''F'''). As in most languages, CV is the most common syllable type, accounting for the majority of '''Kala''' lemmas. The finals /n/, /m/, and /k/ are grammatical and indicate adverbs, plurals, and negatives, respectively. They only occur word finally. So, '''nkapa''' (alcohol) is permitted, but ''nakpa'' is not; '''kyopo''' (fear) is acceptable, but ''koypo'' is not, etc.
-* Only /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and toponyms).
-= Morphology =
-== Nouns ==
-=== Number ===
-==== general plural ====
+== phonotactics ==
+The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
-Kala does not require the plural be marked if it is understood through context, and only inanimate pronouns are marked, whereas inanimate nouns need not be marked. General plurals are formed with –'''m''' (or –'''lo''' if the final syllable contains '''m''').
+There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
-* '''mita / mitam''' - dog / dogs
+When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
-* '''kuma / kumalo''' - bear / bears
-==== mass nouns ====
+=== gemination ===
+Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
-Mass nouns include liquids, powders, and substances, such as '''maya''' (water), '''hyeka''' (sand), and '''tleno''' (wood). They do not normally require determiners or the plural. However, one may add these to indicate specific examples or different types:
+=== syllables ===
+Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
-* '''tlenom''' – woods (e.g. various kinds)
+=== syllable chart ===
-* '''mayam''' - waters (e.g. various locations)
+{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
+|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
-==== collective ====
-The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''group; collection; gathering''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural ('''COL''').
-* '''mita''' – dog / '''tlimita''' – pack of dogs
-* '''yama''' – mountain / '''tliyamalo''' – mountain range
-* '''tsaka''' – house / '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
-* '''puku''' – clothing / '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
-==== other quantifiers ====
-=== Personal Pronouns ===
-'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. '''Kala''' personal pronouns also encode clusivity. That is, there are different words for "we" depending on whether the speaker is including the person spoken to or not. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
-|+ nkalo
 |-
 !
-! Agent
+! a
-! Patient
+! e
-! Reflexive
+! i
-! Possessive
+! o
-! Reciprocal
+! u
-|-
+! ua
-! 1sg
+! ue
-| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' ||
+! ya
-|-
+! ye
-! 2sg
+! yo
-| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' ||
+! ai
-|-
+! ao
-! 3sg
+! uai
-| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' ||
+! yao
-|-
-! 4sg
-| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' ||
-|-
-! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
-| '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
 |-
-! 2pl
+! p
-| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
+| align="center"|''(m)pa''
+| align="center"|''(m)pe''
+| align="center"|''(m)pi''
+| align="center"|''(m)po''
+| align="center"|''(m)pu''
+| align="center"|''pua''
+| align="center"|''pue''
+| align="center"|''pya''
+| align="center"|''pye''
+| align="center"|''pyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
 |-
-! 3pl
+! t
-| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
+| align="center"|''(n)ta''
+| align="center"|''(n)te''
+| align="center"|''(n)ti''
+| align="center"|''(n)to''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
 |-
-! 4pl
+! k
-| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
+| align="center"|''(n)ka''
-|}
+| align="center"|''(n)ke''
+| align="center"|''(n)ki''
-=== Demonstratives ===
+| align="center"|''(n)ko''
+| align="center"|''(n)ku''
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
+| align="center"|''kua''
-|+ uatse
+| align="center"|''kue''
+| align="center"|''kya''
+| align="center"|''kye''
+| align="center"|''kyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
 |-
-!
+! m
-! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
+| align="center"|''ma''
-! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
+| align="center"|''me''
-! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
+| align="center"|''mi''
-! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
+| align="center"|''mo''
-! Negative<br>'''-k'''
+| align="center"|''mu''
-! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
+| align="center"|''mua''
+| align="center"|''mue''
+| align="center"|''mya''
+| align="center"|''mye''
+| align="center"|''myo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
 |-
-! mo<br>''place''
+! n
-| '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
+| align="center"|''na''
+| align="center"|''ne''
+| align="center"|''ni''
+| align="center"|''no''
+| align="center"|''nu''
+| align="center"|''nua''
+| align="center"|''nue''
+| align="center"|''nya''
+| align="center"|''nye''
+| align="center"|''nyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
 |-
-! ko<br>''person''
+! s
-| '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person (over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
+| align="center"|''sa''
+| align="center"|''se''
+| align="center"|''si''
+| align="center"|''so''
+| align="center"|''su''
+| align="center"|''sua''
+| align="center"|''sue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
 |-
-! uku<br>''amount''
+! h
-| '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
+| align="center"|''ha''
+| align="center"|''he''
+| align="center"|''hi''
+| align="center"|''ho''
+| align="center"|''hu''
+| align="center"|''hua''
+| align="center"|''hue''
+| align="center"|''hya''
+| align="center"|''hye''
+| align="center"|''hyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
 |-
-! ama<br>''time''
+! ts
-| '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
+| align="center"|''tsa''
+| align="center"|''tse''
+| align="center"|''tsi''
+| align="center"|''tso''
+| align="center"|''tsu''
+| align="center"|''tsua''
+| align="center"|''tsue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
 |-
-! so<br>''kind, type''
+! tl
-| '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind (over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
+| align="center"|''tla''
+| align="center"|''tle''
+| align="center"|''tli''
+| align="center"|''tlo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
 |-
-! no<br>''thing''
+! l
-| '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
+| align="center"|''la''
+| align="center"|''le''
+| align="center"|''li''
+| align="center"|''lo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
 |-
-! to<br>''manner, method, way''
+! -
-| '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way (over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
+| align="center"|''a''
+| align="center"|''e''
+| align="center"|''i''
+| align="center"|''o''
+| align="center"|''u''
+| align="center"|''ua''
+| align="center"|''ue''
+| align="center"|''ya''
+| align="center"|''ye''
+| align="center"|''yo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
 |}
-== Verbs ==
+<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>
-=== Tense ===
+=== collating order ===
+The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
-Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past and future tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("is about to..."), distant future ("will...in a long while"), recent past ("just ..."), and remote past ("...a long while ago"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
+! Consonants
-==== present ====
+| '''p'''
+| '''t'''
-The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time".
+| '''k'''
+| '''m'''
-* '''mita ina''' - <small>dog eat</small> - ''The dog eats.''
+| '''n'''
-* '''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
+| '''s'''
+| '''h'''
-==== past ====
+| '''ts'''
+| '''tl'''
-The past tense is marked with '''-ye''', from '''aye''' - "it was".
+| '''l'''
+|-align=center
-* '''mita inaye''' - <small>dog eat-PST</small> - ''The dog ate.''
+! Vowels
-* '''mita inayeha''' - <small>dog eat-PST-AUG</small> - ''The dog ate a long while ago.''
+| '''a'''
-* '''mita inayehi''' - <small>dog eat-PST-DIM</small> - ''The dog just ate.''
+| '''e'''
-:: can be marked with '''-hye'''
+| '''i'''
+| '''o'''
-==== future ====
+| '''u'''
+| '''ua'''
-The future tense is marked with '''-tli''', from '''atli''' - "it will be".
+| '''ue'''
+| '''ya'''
-* '''mita inatli''' - <small>dog eat-FUT</small> - ''The dog will eat.''
+| '''ye'''
-* '''mita inatliha''' - <small>dog eat-FUT-AUG</small> - ''The dog will eat in a long while.''
+| '''yo'''
-* '''mita inatlihi''' - <small>dog eat-FUT-DIM</small> - ''The dog is about to eat (will eat soon).''
+|-align=center
-:: can be marked with '''-tlai''' {except when followed by a modal affix)
+|}
-=== Aspect ===
+Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
-==== progressive ====
+== stress ==
+[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
-Also called the continuous [CONT], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress".
+* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
+* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
+* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
+* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
-* '''mita inanko''' - <small>dog eat-CONT</small> - ''The dog is eating.''
+= orthography =
-* '''mita inankoye''' - <small>dog eat-CONT-PST</small> - ''The dog was eating.''
-* '''mita inankotli''' - <small>dog eat-CONT-FUT</small> - ''The dog will be eating.''
-==== perfective ====
+= morphology =
-This aspect indicates that an action is completed [PFV]. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete".
+== nouns ==
-* '''mita inapua''' - <small>dog eat-PFV</small> - ''The dog has eaten.''
+=== pronouns ===
-* '''mita inapuaye''' - <small>dog eat-PFV-PST</small> - ''The dog had eaten.''
-* '''mita inapuatli''' - <small>dog eat-PFV-FUT</small> - ''The dog will have eaten.''
-==== inchoative ====
+=== determiners and demonstratives ===
-This aspect refers to the beginning of a state [INCH]. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate".
+== verbs ==
-* '''mita inamu''' - <small>dog eat-INCH</small> - ''The dog is beginning to eat.''
+=== passive ===
-* '''mita inamuye''' - <small>dog eat-INCH-PST</small> - ''The dog started to eat.''
-* '''mita inamutli''' - <small>dog eat-INCH-FUT</small> - ''The dog will begin to eat''
-=== Mood ===
+=== causative ===
-==== negative ====
+=== inceptive ===
-The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
+=== infinitive ===
-* '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
+=== copula ===
-* '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
-== Particles ==
+=== stative verbs ===
-=== Conjunctions ===
+= derivational morphology =
-=== Function words ===
+== nominalizers ==
-=== Interjections ===
+== reduplication ==
-= Syntax =
+== verbalizers ==
-The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
+= syntax =
-AGENT--PATIENT--VERB
+== word order ==
-The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
+== case usage ==
-* '''mita tlaka anya''' - <small>dog man see</small> - ''The dog sees the man.''
+== noun phrases ==
-* '''tlaka mita anya''' - <small>man dog see</small> - ''The man sees the dog.''
-In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
+== numbers ==
-== Comparisons ==
+== comparisons ==
-== Questions ==
+== prepositions ==
-There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers. Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
+== tense usage ==
-* '''mita ina''' - <small>dog eat</small> - ''The dog eats.''
+== moods ==
-** '''mita ina ka''' - <small>dog eat Q</small> - ''Does the dog eat?''
-The other type of question contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
+== aspect ==
-* '''ke mita ina ka''' - <small>O dog eat Q</small> - ''What does the dog eat?''
+== conditionals ==
-* '''ko ina ka''' - <small>person eat Q</small> - ''Who eats?''
-* '''koyo mita ina ka''' - <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> - ''Whose dog eats?''
-* '''to mita ina ka''' - <small>manner dog eat Q</small> - ''How does the dog eat?''
-* '''mo mita ina ka''' - <small>place dog eat Q</small> - ''Where does the dog eat?''
-* '''nye mita ina ka''' - <small>reason dog eat Q</small> - ''Why does the dog eat?''
-* '''ama mita ina ka''' - <small>time dog eat Q</small> - ''When does the dog eat?''
-* '''uku mita ina ka''' - <small>amount dog eat Q</small> - ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
-= Affixes =
+== subordinate clauses ==
-A complete list of '''Kala''' affixes.
+== negatives ==
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
+== questions ==
-|-
-! affix
-! from
-! definition
-! example
-|-
-| -'''pa'''
-| '''pala'''
-| able to ~; can ~; abilitative mood [ABIL]
-| '''na inapa'''<br>''I am able to eat.''
-|-
-| -'''pe'''
-| '''peya'''
-| piece; part
-| '''inape'''<br>''morsel; crumb''
-|-
-| -'''po'''
-| '''nipo'''
-| compel; force [COMP]
-| '''ena mokupo'''<br>''I am compelled to sleep''
-|-
-| -'''pu'''
-| '''puku'''
-| clothing; attire
-| '''anapu'''<br>''head-clothing; hat''
-|-
-| -'''pua'''
-| '''opua'''
-| finish; complete; perfective aspect [PFV]
-| '''ha inapua'''<br>''She has eaten.''
-|-
-| -'''pya'''
-| '''upya'''
-| attempt; try; attemptive mood [ATT]
-| '''ha inapya'''<br>''He is trying to eat.''
-|-
-| -'''pye'''
-| '''kupye'''
-| too much/many; excessive
-| '''ha inapye'''<br>''He is eating too much.''
-|-
-| -'''pyo'''
-| '''pyoki'''
-| disease; illness
-| '''moyopyo'''<br>''heart disease''
-|-
-| -'''ta'''
-| '''tlaka'''
-| male; masculine
-| '''umata'''<br>''stallion''
-|-
-| -'''sa'''
-| '''sala'''
-| room; chamber
-| '''pukusa'''<br>''dressing room''
-|}

User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

free variation

Sound Changes

vowels

diphthongs

phonotactics

gemination

syllables

syllable chart

collating order

stress

orthography

morphology

nouns

pronouns

determiners and demonstratives

verbs

passive

causative

inceptive

infinitive

copula

stative verbs

derivational morphology

nominalizers

reduplication

verbalizers

syntax

word order

case usage

noun phrases

numbers

comparisons

prepositions

tense usage

moods

aspect

conditionals

subordinate clauses

negatives

questions

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