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This page provides an overview of the draqa (or, '' "draga", pron. '/t◌̪ɚ. æ. ɦæ/' '') language, and some of its lexical items.  Draga is my own personal conlang, and is in daily use by a speakership of one.  It is intended to useable by human beings, but I wanted to break a few universals in the process.  The phonology comes from analysis of my personal random "babbling".  I also wanted to pursue ways of thinking mostly alien to my native language (English) and culture (American/Black), and create a better vehicle for expressing certain personal, perhaps "mystic" experiences in everyday speech.  The "lofty" goals, however, are relatively recent.  Originally, it was just something fun to do.


{|
| This page provides an overview of the draqa (or, '' "draga", pron. '/t◌̪ɚ. æ. ɦæ/' '') language, and some of its lexical items.  Draga is my own personal conlang, and is in daily use by a speakership of one.  It is intended to useable by human beings, but I wanted to break a few universals in the process.  The phonology comes from analysis of my personal random "babbling".  I also wanted to pursue ways of thinking mostly alien to my native language (English) and culture (American/Black), and create a better vehicle for expressing certain personal, perhaps "mystic" experiences in everyday speech.  The "lofty" goals, however, are relatively recent.  Originally, it was just something fun to do.
|| [[File:xeanpasyufei-vert.jpeg]]
|-
|}




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== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==


draqa (draga) is a personal constructed language, "spoken" by an exile population who call their homeland Qhyra. Technically, "[[draqa]]" (with a 'q') refers to an ancient form of the language, and "draga" (with a 'g') to the modern language; however, the spelling "draqa" is often used for either.  
'''draqa''' ('''draga''') is a personal constructed language, "spoken" by an exile population who call their homeland Qhrya. Technically, "[[draqa]]" (with a 'q') refers to an ancient form of the language, and "draga" (with a 'g') to the modern language; however, the spelling "draqa" is often used for either.  Even more ancient -.preceding ''dra'''q'''a'' - is ''  '''draga''' (pronounced  /dra. ga/ and technically referred to as proto-draga)'', which evolved from '''dragat'''.




The history of the draga people is quite mysterious. Apparently, the civilization of Qhrya arose in the North American continent, contemporary with (but not related to) the Atlantean civilization of the second ''destruction'' (~13,500 B.C.) Within 1.000 years of that cataclysm, Qhrya was completely sacked, leaving fewer than 2,000 souls to wander for almost 200 years. Finding no respite, apparently the nation astrally projected themselves en masse into a parallel reality, where they have continued to thrive. The prophecies say that eventually the nation will reincarnate into this world in the 20th, 21st and 22nd centuries, at first scattered across the continents but eventually re-unified into a small nation again.
The history of the draga people is quite mysterious. Apparently, the civilization of Qhrya arose in the North American continent, contemporary with (but not related to) the second Atlantean civilization (~28,000 B.C.) Within 1.000 years of that cataclysm, Qhrya was completely sacked, leaving fewer than 2,000 souls to wander for almost 200 years. Finding no respite, apparently the nation astrally projected themselves en masse into a parallel reality, where they have continued to thrive. The prophecies say that eventually the nation will reincarnate into this world in the 20th, 21st and 22nd centuries, at first scattered across the continents but eventually re-unified into a small nation again.


The draga are a dream-travelling people, whose primary mode of long-distance (as well as inter-dimensional and temporal) travel is astral-projection.  Hence, culturally and linguistically, they are easily adapted to "primitive", "high-tech" and even "psychic" environments.  
The draga are a dream-travelling people, whose primary mode of long-distance (as well as inter-dimensional and temporal) travel is astral-projection.  Hence, culturally and linguistically, they are easily adapted to "primitive", "high-tech" and even "psychic" environments.  
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== Orthography / Phonological Considerations ==
== Orthography / Phonological Considerations ==
Transliteration of the draga language uses 25 characters of the Roman alphabet: '' a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, ñ, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w, x, y, z'' - and both the single-quote ('' ' '') and double-quote ('' " '') symbols to represent the sounds.  In addition, the acute accent is used to represent pitch-accenting: ''á í ú''.  Traditionally, draga is written in a native alphabetic script that is supplemented by many logographs which are used to represent the most frequently used particles and lexemes.  For some unfathomable reason, there is also a rare transliteration scheme which utilizes the Coptic alphabet.
Transliteration of the draga language uses 25 characters of the Roman alphabet: '' a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, ñ, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w, x, y, z'' - and the single-quote ('' ' '') symbol to represent the sounds.  In addition, the acute accent is used to represent pitch-accenting: ''á í ú''.  Traditionally, draga is written in a native alphabetic script that is supplemented by many logographs which are used to represent the most frequently used particles and lexemes.  For some unfathomable reason, there is also a rare transliteration scheme which utilizes the Coptic alphabet.




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=== Vowels ===
=== Vowels ===


There are 6 basic vowels in the draga language: '''i''' /i/, '''a''' /æ/, '''e''' /əˑ/, '''ou''' /ʷɔˑ/, '''o''' /ʊ/, '''r''' /ɚˑ/.
Draga is a pitch-accented language, the vowels '''i, a,''' and '''o''' being found either median- or high-pitched. The acute accent is used to represent a ''high (and/or falling)'' tone: '''í, á, ú''' ''(rather than ó)''.  The tone of the vowel ''' 'ou' ''' is always ''low''.  The vowels
''' 'e' ''' and ''' 'r' '''
are always stressed, but are not pitch-accented. The vowels ''' 'ou', 'e', ''' and ''' 'r' ''' are typically semi-long in duration.  The symbol ''' 'r' ''' following another vowel indicates ''Rhoticization''.


{|
* '''ï, í, i''' /i/
| '''i''' || [i] || '''í''' || [i↘] || '''ií''' || [i↗]
 
|-
* '''á, a''' /æ/
| '''a''' || [æ] || '''á''' || [æ↘] || '''aá''' || [æ↗]
 
|-  
* '''ae''' /æeˑ/ 
| '''o''' || [ʊ] || '''ú''' || [ʊ↘] || '''uú''' || [ʊ↗]
 
|-
* '''e''' /əˑ/
| '''e''' || [ʌ] or [ə]
 
|-
* '''ou''' /ʷɔˑ/
| '''ou'''  || [ʷɔˑ]
 
|-
* '''ú / ó,  o''' /ʊ/
| '''r''' || [ɚ]
 
|-
* '''r, rr (ë)''' /ɚˑ/
|}
 
 
 
Draga is a pitch-accented language:
 
* ''' i, a, e, o, r ''' are intoned at median pitch.  They are considered unaccented.
 
* '''í, á, ë''' are intoned at high pitch - typically 3-5 whole tones above the median.  
 
* '''ï''' is intoned at very high pitch - typically 5 - 8 whole tones above the median.
 
* '''ú''' is intoned with a high, falling pitch, while '''ó''' is intoned with a high pitch.
 
* '''ae''' is obviously a dipthong, but is treated as an invididual vowel. It is intoned at median pitch.
 
* '''ou''' is always intoned with a slightly long, low pitch - typically 3-5 whole tones below the median.
 
 
 
 
''Rhoticization''.
 
Some vowels can be found ''rhoticized'':
 
* '''ír''', '''ir''',  '''ár''',  '''ar''',  '''aer''',  '''or'''
 
 




'''Rhoticization:'''
''Special Cases:''


The vowels 'a,i,o' can also be found rhoticized: ''ar, ár, aár, ir, ír, iír, or''
* '''ïr''' is intoned falling from very high pitch to median.


{|
* '''úor''' is intoned falling from high pitch to low pitch.
| '''ar''' || [æʳ] || '''ár''' || [æʳ↘] || '''aár''' || [æʳ↗]
|-
| '''ir''' || [iʳ] || '''ír''' || [iʳ↘] || '''iír''' || [iʳ↗]
|-
| '''or''' || [ʊʳ]
|-
|}


* '''ra''' is intoned falling from high pitch to median.




'''Combinations:'''


'''ea''', '''eu''', '''ae''' are spelled irregularly, to contrast with ''ía, iá, ío, iú, ái'' and ''aí''. 


{|
''Spelling Conventions''
| '''ea''' || [iæ]
|-
| '''eu''' || [iʊː]
|-
| '''ae''' || [æeˑ]
|-
| '''aer''' || [æeʳː]
|-
|}


The following spellings are found interchangably in draga transliteration, ''ea'' and ''eu'' being the most commonly used:


Other dipthongs include:
* ''' io''' = '''iu''' = '''eu'''


{|
* '''ia''' = '''ea'''
| '''ie''' [iə] ||  || '''íe''' [i↘ə] 
|-
| '''ei'''  [ʌiˑ] ''or'' [əiˑ] || || '''ui''' [ʊi]
|-
|  '''úi''' [ʊ↘i] ||  || '''uí''' [ʊ↗i]
|-
| '''ái''' [æ↘i] ||  || '''aí'''  [æ↗i]
|-
| '''ía''' [i↘æ] ||  || '''iá''' [i↗æ]
|-
|'''ío'''  [i↘ɔˑ] ||  || '''iú'''  [i↗ʊ]
|-
|}




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draga Words (Roots) are typically 2-4 syllables in length, and generally begin with any sound but '''g''' /ɦ/.  The phone '''e''' /ə/ is thus far unattested ''formally'' as a final vowel, and the phone ''' ' ''' /ʔ/ never ends a ''word''.  Many Roots may also have more than one related form, which are pretty much interchangeable and are selected for by context, ''e.g.'' '''ftyeañ''' /f. ʈiæɲ/, might alternatively be pronounced '' 'ftyañ'  /f. ʈæˑɲˑ/'', or '' 'ftyaña'  /f. ʈæ. ɲæ/''.  Orthographically, this phenomenon is very much up in the air:  There is some debate around whether certain "standard" forms of words should be written at all times, or whether actual or intended pronunciation should be indicated.   
draga Roots are typically 1-2 syllables in length, and generally begin with any sound but '''g''' /ɦ/.  The phone '''e''' /ə/ is thus far unattested ''formally'' as a final vowel, and the phone ''' ' ''' /ʔ/ never ends a ''word''.   




''' ''Additional Notes'': '''  ''1.'' Syllabicized (C2) consonants are fully realized, and do not tend to become consonant clusters: '''sqa''' is pronounced ''[s. qæ]'', '''ewjo''' is pronounced ''[əˑw. tzʊ]''.  ''(The primary exception is '''mw''' in "lazy" speech: [mʘʷ])'' Like the vowels '''i/í''', '''a/á''', and '''o/ú''', they generally receive an even stress.  ''2.''  Unaccented (median-pitched) vowels which follow a ''rising'' or ''falling'' contour, are pronounced at the final pitch of the contour.  ''e.g.'' '''píawañ-ciñ''' all vowels after '''í''' are median-pitched, '''fbaíyac''' the '''a''' after the '''í''' is high-pitched. ''3.'' The Rhoticized vowels tend to be pronounced at a slightly lower pitch than other unaccented vowels.  ''4.'' The vowel '''ou''' is always low-pitched, and ''resets'' the median pitch to the speaker's ''baseline'' even when following a pitch contour.


 
== Useful Expressions ==
 
== Root Morphology ==
 
draga Roots fall into a single category,  ''i.e.'' there is no noun-verb distinction.  Neither are there adjectives nor adverbs.  All morphological functions are theoretically available for modification of ''any'' Root.  Aspectual concepts actually appear as individual Roots in draga (but are also often expressed using ''locative constructions'').  The primary modifications of draga Roots are ''locative (position / direction)'' and ''genitive (relationship)'', but of course there are many others:
 
 
=== Pronominal ===


{|
{|
| ''Root form'' || ''Genitive suffix'' || ''Person''
| '''a píawañ ciñ:''' || ''Hello, Goodbye''
|-
|-
| '''phaxeañ / phayac''' || '''-xeañ / -(y)ac''' ||  1st Person Exclusive
| '''a jawa:''' || ''Thank you, Your welcome, Please, It's okay''
|-
|-
| '''phaweax / phaweiaqs''' || '''-weax / -weiaqs''' || 1st Person Inclusive
| '''mú wañ:''' || ''How are you?  What's up with ya?''
|-
| '''ía phoi:''' || ''I'm happy, doing well, in a good mood''
|-
| '''ía phíw:''' || '' I'm not doing so well''
|-
| '''ía xapo:''' || '' All's well, I'm chillin' ''
|-
| ''' fo mía: ''' || ''Excuse me, May I?, Help!''
|-
|-
| '''phamagyi''' || '''-magyi''' || 2nd Person
| '''a jwae:''' || ''Yes''
|-
|-
| '''phamui / phayañ''' || '''-mei / -(y)añ''' || *Referent (2nd or 3rd Person)
| ''' a sae: ''' || ''No''
|-
|-
| '''phalor''' || '''-lor''' || 3rd Person Animate/ Abstract
| '''ía meqeña:''' || '' I'm hungry''
|-
|-
| '''phakwui''' || '''-kwui''' || 3rd Person Inanimate
| '''mú meqeña:''' || ''Are you hungry?''
|-
|-
| '''phafeas''' || '''-feas''' || 4th Person (Obviate) Animate/ Abstract
| '''mú fwae:''' || ''Do you like it? Would you recommend it?''
|-
|-
| '''phakwuifes''' || '''-kwuifes''' || 4th Person (Obviate) Inanimate
| '''ía fwae:''' || ''I like it''
|-
|-
 
| '''a hleu:''' || How nice! Beautiful!
|}
 
 
* The '''Referent''' is the "person" under discussion, or the "main character", per se.  In classic draga there was no specific Pronominal form for 2p direct address, and it's use is still ''relatively'' infrequent - primarily for clarity, emphasis or endearment.  The ''Referent'' is a 3rd person form ''(animate, abstract or inanimate)'', whose reference can be "switched" to  indicate a 2nd person, ''i.e. "S/he (which is you)." ''  The referent switches include: ''mú, m'' and ''añmagyi.
 
 
Examples: ''('''fbaí''' "table", '''skyá''' "running", '''phuia''' "joy", '''siha''' "green")''
* '''fbaí-xeañ ''' "My table"
* '''skyá-weiaqs''' "Our running", "We run/ran"
* '''phuia-lor''' "His/her joy", "S/he is happy"
* '''siha-yañ''' "It's green-ness", "It is green", "Her/your green (-ness) (-ing) (thing)", etc.
 
N.B. '''fbaí''' literally refers to ''any'' surface, upon which (things) may rest.
 
 
=== Locative ===
 
{|
| '''Unbound''' || '''Semi-bound''' || '''Fully Bound''' || ||
|-
|-
| '''ie''' || || '''-qor''' || ''at, in, on, to, toward, from''
| '''qhwúi! a jwae:''' || ''Let's do it!''
|-
|-
| || '''yr-''' || '''-yir''' || ''toward''
| '''íaskyïaf:''' || '' I don't know''
|-
|-
| || '''fwor-''', '''yr-''' || '''-dae''' || ''at, in, on''
| ''' íasfwae:''' || '' I don't like it''
|-
|-
| || '''hyañ-''' || '''-pyir''' || ''successfully to''
| ''' ía ñamaxa-meu: ''' || ''I very much enjoy the meal''
|-
|-
| || '''sor-''' || '''-sear''' || ''unsuccessfully toward''
| ''' fei-ajawa:''', '''ajawafei:''' || '' Thank You Universe! (Almost like "Thanks be to God" or "Thank (you) God") ''
|-
|-
| || '''jwor-''' || '''-tyui''', '''-chou''' || ''(originating) from''
| ''' xe'a wañ mieqs dañ... ''' || ''Where can I find ...''
|-
|-
| || || '''-fir''' || ''in the general direction of''
| ''' xe'a wañ t'ou dañ... ''' || ''Which way to ...''
|-
|-
| || || '''-teyou''' || ''in a general direction away from''
| ''' xe'a wañ dañ fou: ''' || ''What's up with the cannabis - (could you pass it please?)''
|-
|-
|}
|}




Examples: ''('''lyaña''' "home", '''kyíafa''' "understanding", '''phuia''' "joy")''
* '''lyaña-yir (lyañ-yir)'''  "Toward home", "Going home"
* '''kyíafa-sear''' "Try unsuccessfully to understand"
* '''phuia-tyui''' "Originating from (a place of ) joy," ''e.g. within one'sself, etc.''




== Grammar Notes ==
=== Preface ===
draga has two types of morphemes, ''Particles'' and ''Roots''.  ''Roots'' are generally "content" words, and include what would be Nouns, Verbs and Adjectives in English, even Adverbs.  None of those distinctions are made in the draga language, and ''theoretically'', any applicable ''Particle'' can be used with any ''Root''.  So, to say '''lyíañc''' "Home + My (My home)", '''skyi'c''' "Running + My (I run)", and '''phoiac''' "Joyful + My (I am happy)" - the same construction is used throughout.  Of course, '''skyi'c''' ''could also''  mean "My running" or "My run"; and  '''phoiac''' could mean "My joy" depending on context.


''Notes:''
# Most commonly, it is the Bound form that is used.
# The Semi-bound particles ('''fwor, sor, jwor''') usually add emphasis when used to modify a Root. Pronoun-like Roots, however, tend to prefer the semi-bound particles. - and the interrogative pronominal ''' 'wañ' ''' ("where?") never takes a bound locative. The semi-bound Locatives are also used to modify whole clauses.
#  Ordinal numbers (7.1) are typically formed with the semi-bound '''yr''', ''e.g.'' 'yr-yifa' = "at-1" (i.e. "first").
# The unbound Locative 'ie' is a very casual particle that basically conveys the general idea of location or direction. It can also be used in combination with the other locatives for emphasis, specification or re-inforcement: ''e.g.''' ie lyaña-yir = lyaña-yir || ie lyaña-teyou = lyaña-teyou || ie lyaña-dae = lyaña-dae = ie yr-lyaña .
# '''ie''' can also mean "from", in context. For example: mú jwor-wañ: ("Where are you coming from?") → (ía) ie lyaña ("From home").


This context is based on a relationship between a ''Predicate'' and its ''Argument(s)'', which are the roles available to ''Roots'' in the draga language.  A ''Predicate'' may or may not be modified, or juxtaposed, with one or multiple ''Arguments'' - and the relationship of these ''Roots'' (or phrases) to each other may or may not be made more explicit by some ''Particle''.  This is the general role of ''Particles'' in the draga language: to modify the meaning of a ''Root'', or to clarify the relationships among ''Roots'' or phrases.




However, there is a special type of ''Particle'' in draga which is always essential.  This is the ''Speech Act Particle (SAP)'', which is always the beginning of a sentence.  The ''SAP'' may contain  evidential, or mood information - or it may indicate that a question is being asked, a command given, etc.  Often, an ''SAP'' may be the whole sentence all by itself.


=== Compound Locatives ===


This set of locatives express relative position rather direction. They are combined forms of 2 parts:
Some basic ''SAP''s that will be useful right away:




Heads:  '''fwía-''' '' "Above"'', '''jeuq-''' ''"Below"'', '''daea-''' ''"Level with"'', '''qhow-''' ''"In front of"'', '''qhaw-''' ''"Behind"'', '''duia-''' ''"Next to"''
* '''ía''' Introduces a subjective personal 1st person (me, my) experience:  '''ía phoi:''' "I am happy, i.e. ''I experience joy.''"


Codas: '''-da-''' ''"Located"'', '''-ha-''' ''"Touching, Connected or Attached"'', '''-sui-''' ''"Not touching or attached, disconnected, separate from"''
* '''fwoia''' Indicates that '' "I witness(ed) this personally"'':  '''fwoia phoiaña:''' "I see that s/he is happy."


* '''mú'''  Is used to asked a 2nd person (you) question: '''mú phoi:'''  "Are you happy?"


The combined forms appear as ''prefixes'':
* '''eia'''  Is used when telling stories, or relating information one has overheard at some point, but not having experience it personally:  '''eia phoiaña:''' "S/he was happy", "They say that s/he is happy."
* '''es'''  Is used to express a negative sentence:  '''es phoiaña:''' "S/he is ''not'' happy'''


{|
| '''fwíada-''' || '''jeuqda-''' ||  '''daeada-''' || '''qhowda-''' || '''qhawda-''' || '''duiada-'''
|-
| '''fwíaha-''' ||  '''jeuqha-''' ||  '''daeaha-''' || '''qhowha-''' || '''qhawha-''' || '''duiaha-'''
|-
| '''fwíasui-''' || '''jeuqsui-''' || '''daeasui-''' || '''qhowsui-''' || '''qhawsui-''' || '''duiasui-'''
|-
|}


BTW, the punctuation mark ' ''':''' '  indicates the end of a draga sentence.




Examples: ''('''fbaí''' "surface, table")''
=== Demonstratives ===
* '''fwíada-fbaí''' - "(Somewhere) above the top the table"
* '''fwíaha-fbaí''' - "On top of the table"
* '''fwíasui-fbaí''' - "Above the table (not touching it)"






==== Definite Particles ====


=== Genitive ===
There are two ''Definite Particles'' in draga, the ''weak'' and the ''strong'' definite particles.  The ''weak'' particle acts like "the", "some", "this", etc. in referring to a specific instance of what you're talking about:




{|
| ''' (cr-), xr-, x- ''' || '' Of (generic)  ''
|-
| '''hañ-''' || ''Associated with, Correlated with, Identified with''
|-
| '''em-''' || ''Portion, part of''
|-
| '''ho-, húa-'''  || ''Attributed with, Filled with''
|-
| '''mes-''' || ''Composed of''
|-
| '''war-''' || ''Functioning as, In the role of''
|-
|}


* '''pha'''-''lyían'', ''lyían''-'''paá'''  Home, the home, this home, my home, etc.
* '''pha'''-''haña'', ''haña''-'''paá'''  This / that / the  human being
* '''pha'''-''síah'', ''síah''-'''paá'''  The deer, etc.
* '''pha'''-''laex'', ''laex''-'''paá'''    The drinking water
* '''pha'''-''skyi' '', ''skyi' ''-'''paá'''  Running, The run, this running, etc.


* Note: draga constructions are head-inital, ''i.e.'' '''X cr-Y''' would mean ''"X  of Y"''.  There is a finalizing particle, ''' 'dei' ''', which allows for the transformation of the structure: '''cr-Y dei X'''.  Incidentally, the (archaic) formal word is '''cr-''', but it is almost always pronounced '''xr-''' in modern parlance, and generally written '''x' '''. (Partially owing to the fact that the draga logograph for the particle '''xr-''' happens to look just like an '''x'''.)




Examples: ''('''skyá''' "running", '''seahañ''' "deer", '''hlui''' "light", '''aqa''' "person, i.e. a focal perspective", '''fañta''' "wall", '''píoñ''' "stone", )''
The ''weak (or Iconic)'' definite particle creates a word referencing an iconic or essential form of the concept at hand.  Examples of this kind of thing in English would be: ''"The MAN", "Big Government", "Justice", "The Law", "God", "They", etc.''  Fittingly, of course, none of those particular examples are concepts that actually exist in the draga language:
* '''skyá x'seahañ'''  - "Deer's running"
* '''seahañ ho-skyá''' - "Deer which is running"
* '''hlui hañ-aqa''' - "Light-Body", "light which is also or correlates to (the) person"
* '''fañta mes-píoñ''' - "Wall made of stone"




* ''mía''-'''pa'''


* ''súa''-'''pa'''


* ''xían''-'''pa''' 


=== Articles ===
* ''syú''-'''pa'''


==== Negative ====
* ''hloiso''-'''pa'''


{|
|  '''sei, sei-''' || Negative Article
|}




==== Definite ====
{|
| '''fae-''' || Plural Definite Article
|-
| '''pha-''' || Strong (Direct) Definite Article
|-
| '''-pa''' || Weak (Iconic) Definite Article
|-
|}


==== Count Particles ====


Any draga ''Root'' can be prefixed with one of the number particles to indicate a count of up to six:




==== Indefinite ====
* ''' f'- '''  one
{|
* ''' ñ'- '''  two
| '''híewa-''' || Indefinite Article
* ''' d'- ''' three
|-
* ''' w'- '''  four
| '''yeya-''' || Generic Article
* ''' m'- ''' five
|-
* ''' xw'- '''  six
|}
* ''' tío- '''  several, many
* ''' fma- ''' very many, a multitude




The usage of the definite and indefinite articles is much different than that of Indo-European languages:
Examples:


* The plural article is not used every time more than one is involved.  Its use places emphasis on the fact that there are more than one, and usually indicates that in fact ''several, many'' or ''a group'' are under discussion.  It usually does not refer to just two or three.
* '''f'síah''' "a single deer"
* '''w'skyi' '''  "four runs"
* '''fmaphoi'''    "many joys, joyous occasions, etc."


* The strong article indicates not only a specific instantiation, but also may point to the specific concept.  So, given '''seahañ''' '' 'deer' '' - the word '''pha-seahañ''' can mean "That (those) deer" specifically under discussion, but it can also mean "A deer", '' e.g. "It is a deer" or "There's a deer" ''


* The weak definite article creates a word referencing an iconic or essential form of the concept at hand.  Examples of this kind of thing in English would be: ''"The MAN", "Big Government", "Justice", "The Law", "God", "They", etc.''  Fittingly, of course, none of those particular examples are concepts that actually exist in the draga language.


* The indefinite article generally translates to ''"Any", "Some" or "Whatever"''. Its meaning is specifically indefinite.  It is never used to merely indicate singulars or hypothetical instances.
The ''Particle'' '''sei''' negates any ''Root'' it precedes:
* '''seisíah'''  "not a deer"
* '''seiskyi' ''' "not running"
* '''seiphoi''' "not happy"


* The generic article means ''"In general"''.  Given '''seahañ''' ''"deer"'', the word '''yeya-seahañ''' means ''"Deer in general"''.






==== Demonstrative ====
==== Distal Particles ====
{|
{|
| '''síaf-''' || '''-seaf''' || Reflexive
| '''sfi-''' || '''-sfía''' || Reflexive
|-
|-
| - || '''-tyigi''' || Reciprocal
| '''tyígi -''' || '''-tyigi''' || Reciprocal
|-
|-
| ''' fr- ''' || '''-fir''' || Immediate
| ''' for-''' || '''-fír''' || Immediate '' ("Right here") ''
|-
|-
| '''qhwo-''' || '''-kwo''' || Proximal
| '''kwo-''' || '''-qhwú''' || Proximal '' ("Next to, nearby'') ''
|-
|-
| '''yelo-''' || || Peri-Proximal
| '''yálo-''' || '''-yalo'''  || Peri-Proximal '' ("Right over there, close by") ''
|-
|-
| '''báwo-''' || || Distal
| '''báo-''' || '''-baó''' || Distal '' ("Over there, in the distance") ''
|-
|-
| '''t'ou-''' || '''-tou''' || Absent
| '''t'áo-''' || '''-t'aó''' || Absent '' ("Not here, out of view / earshot") ''
|-
|-


Line 413: Line 367:




Examples: ('''aqa''' "person", '''phuia''' "joy")
Examples: ('''aeaq''' "person", '''phoia''' "joy")
* '''aqa-seaf''' "The person her/himself"
* '''aeaq-sfía''' / '''sfi-aeaq'''  "The person her/himself"
* '''phuia-seaf''' "Self-joy, enjoy one's self"
* '''phoi-sfía''' / '''sfi-phoi''' "Self-joy, enjoy one's self"
* '''aqa-tyigi''' "Those reciprocating each other"
* '''aeaq-tyigi''' / '''tyígi-aeaq''' "Those reciprocating each other"
* '''phuia-tyigi''' "Enjoy each other, Give each other joy"
* '''phoi-tyigi''' / '''tyígi-phoi'''  "Enjoy each other, Give each other joy"
* '''fr-aqa''' "This person here, me"
* '''for-aeaq''' / ''' aeaq-fír''' "This person here, me"
* '''phuia-fir''' "This (immediate) joy"
* '''phoi-fír''' / ''' for-phoi''' "This (immediate) joy"
* '''t'ou-aqa''' "Person who is not here"
* '''t'áo-aeaq''' / ''' aeaq-t'aó'''  "Person who is not here"
* '''phuia-tou''' "Joy which is (perhaps figuratively) absent"
* '''phoi-t'aó''' /  '''t'áo-phoi''' "Joy which is (perhaps figuratively) absent"






=== Miscellaneous ===


Prefixes:
=== Pronominals ===
{|
| '''yíama-''' || Approaching / arriving at a state
|-
| '''sama-''' || Departure from a state
|-
| '''hi-, hieñ-''' || Associated action or result
|-
| '''yñ-''' || Individual instance or part of normally grouped items
|-
| '''fía-''' || Multiple manifestations grouped as a single instance; Done totally, completely, to the fullest extent
|-
|  '''heu-''' || Using
|-
| '''fi-''' || Upper
|}


Personal Pronominal forms come in two flavors: ''Generic'' and ''Agency''.  The ''Generic'' form does not specify anything about the relationship between the pronominal (i.e. the "person") and the Predicate it is related to.  The ''Agency'' form specifically indicates that the "person" has acted in some way with regard to the concept described by the Predicate.  This ''agency'' is not necessarily volitional (intentional) or even animate.




Suffixes:
{|
{|
| '''-meu''' || Strongly postive experience || '''-xui''' || Name Indicator
| ''Root'' || ''Prefix (Generic)'' || ''Generic Suffix'' || ''Agency Suffix'' || ''Person''
|-
|-
| '''-tui''' || Strongly visceral experience || '''-hui''' || One associated with, Do-er of, sim. '-er'  
| '''xean''' || '''xi-''' || '''-(w)(e)c''' || ''' -xui''' ||  1st Person Exclusive
|-
|-
| '''-phíw''' || Strongly negative experience || '''-xa''' || Pleasure
| '''phaweiaqs  ''' || '''wox-''' || '''-weax''' || '''-weiaqs''' || 1st Person Inclusive
|-
|-
| '''-far''' || Similarity || '''-lyañ''' || Home, Place
| '''phamagyi''' || '''mi-''' || '''-magyi''' || '''-mmo''' || 2nd Person
|-
|-
| '''-sieñ''' || Without, Lacking || '''-ñou''' || Lower
| '''phaen''' || ''' nir''' || '''-ña''' || '''-za''' || *Referent (2nd or 3rd Person)
|-
|-
| '''-kwae''' || One, Thing || '''-kyeax''' || System
| '''phayañ''' || '''phadae''' || '''-da''' || '''-dae''' || 3rd Person Animate/ Abstract
|-
|-
| '''-lae''' || Liquid || '''-jir''' || Capability, Ability
| '''phakwoi''' || '''phakwoi''' || '''-kwoi''' || '''-kwoi ''' || 3rd Person Inanimate
|-
|-
| '''-jw'áo''' || Done intentionally || '''-ci''' || Principalia, Secret, Mystery, Foundation, Theory
| '''phafeas''' || '''phafeas''' || '''-feas''' || '''-feas''' || 4th Person (Obviate) Animate/ Abstract
|-
|-
| '''-se'ago''', (-se'ao) || Done un-intentionally
| '''phakwoiaf''' || '''phakwoiaf''' || '''-kwoiaf''' || '''-kwoiaf''' || 4th Person (Obviate) Inanimate
|-
|-
|}
|}


* The '''Referent''' is the "person" under discussion, or the "main character", per se.  In classic draga there was no specific Pronominal form for 2p direct address, and it's use is still ''relatively'' infrequent - primarily for clarity, emphasis or endearment.  The ''Referent'' is a 3rd person form ''(animate, abstract or inanimate)'', whose reference can be "switched" to  indicate a 2nd person, ''i.e. "S/he (which is you)." ''
*  The Generic and Agency forms refer to whether or not the pronominal suffix indicates a general relationship of cause or influence, e.g. '''síahe''c'' ''' would refer to a ''deer that *I am associated with'' (in any given way), whereas '''síaha''xoi'' ''' would refer to a ''deer which *I have acted upon or influenced'' in some way. 
Examples: ''('''sbaí''' "surface, table", '''skyi' ''' "running", '''phoia''' "joy", '''siha''' "green")''
* '''sbaí-c ''' "My table" (That I own, or is related  to me in some way)
* '''sbaí-xoi ''' "My table" (That I act upon in some way)
* '''skyi'-weax''' "Our running", "We run/ran¨ or even ¨We were run¨
* '''skyi'-weiaqs''' "Running that we do/did/are doing"
* '''phoia-na''' "His/her joy", "S/he is happy"
* '''siha-ña''' "It's green-ness", "It is green", "Her/your green (-ness) (-ing) (thing)", etc.
* '''siha-za''' ¨The greening/greenness/etc. that s/he (or you) influence/act-upon¨, etc.
==== wañ ====
'''wañ''' is a ''Pronominal'' which is used in Interrogative statements, and means '' "which? what? where? how?,who? why?" '' etc.  Its use will be discussed further on.
==== phawoi, paá ====
These particles are similar to Spanish '' "lo" '', and refer to "the one under discussion" - often translatable to '' "that one, this one, him, her, it, etc." ''  Its usage will also be explicated further on.
=== Locatives ===
The ''Locatives'' are ''Particles'' that indicate location, motion and direction.  However, their broad usage allows for simple creation of useful sentences:




Classification:
{|
{|
| '''aqa-''' || person: human, animal, spirit, etc. || '''xigi-''' || round object
| '''Unbound''' || '''Semi-bound''' || '''Fully Bound''' || ||
|-
|-
| '''phoña-''' || plant || '''hyoci-''' || open sided structure
| '''ie'''' || || || ''at, in, on, to, toward, from''
|-
|-
| '''dowa-''' || location, situation || '''quiyo-''' || box-shaped object
| || '''ya-''' || '''-yaó''' || ''toward''
|-
|-
| '''hayou-''' || action, process, occurrence, state || '''kwú-''' || type, class; ethnic group
| || '''fwor-''', '''ya-''' || '''-tyíw''' || ''at, in, on''
|-
|-
| '''hío-''' || Tool || '''sakyií-''' || flying thing
| || '''phya-''' || '''-pyír''' || ''successfully to''
|-
|-
| '''sbor-''' || spatial area; integral portion, body part || '''o'ya-''' || container, ceramic, dish
| || '''swor-''' || '''-sear''' || ''unsuccessfully toward''
|-
|-
| '''tfuio-''' (tfoyo-) || flat discrete object || '''phesqa-''' || textile, clothing
| || '''chou-''' || '''-tyou''' || ''(originating) from''
|-
|-
| '''xwalo-''' || mass object || '''tíeqma-''' || machine
| || || '''-fir''' || ''in the general direction of''
|-
|-
| '''peda-''' || long, narrow object
| || || '''-teyou''' || ''in a general direction away from''
|-
|-
|}
|}
Examples: ''('''lyían''' "home", '''kyïaf''' "understanding", '''phoi''' "joy")''
* '''ya-lyían'''  "Toward home", "Going home"
* '''kyíaf-sear''' "Try unsuccessfully to understand"
* '''phoia-tyou''' "Originating from (a place of ) joy," ''e.g. within one'sself, etc.''
Example Sentences:
* '''ía yalyían:'''  "I am going home."
* '''mú phya-kyíaf:'''  "Were you able to finally understand?"
* '''fwoia phoia-teyou-ña:'''  "I see that s/he is becoming less joyful."
==== Additional Locatives ====
Some other locative particles inlude:
* '''mor-''',  ''Inside of''
* ''' wos-'''  ''On the border, surface, edge, at the entrace, etc. ''
* ''' sdá- '''  ''Outside of''
* ''' -jíla '''  ''Through'' 
* ''' -de'thew '''  ''Throughout''
* '''-mieqs''' "At a particular location'''
* '''-míesq''' "At a particular set of circumstance, situation, or place-time"
==== Special Cases ====








==== Compound Locatives ====


== Sentence Structure==
This set of locatives express relative position rather direction.  They are combined forms of 2 parts:
 
 
# Heads:  '''fwía-''' '' "Above"'', '''jíoq-''' ''"Below"'', '''daea-''' ''"Level with"'', '''qhow-''' ''"In front of"'', '''qhaw-''' ''"Behind"'', '''doi-''' ''"Next to"'
 
# Codas: '''-da-''' ''"Located"'', '''-ha-''' ''"Touching, Connected or Attached"'', '''-sm-''' ''"Not touching or attached, disconnected, separate from"''


=== Speech Act Particles ===
Any draqa sentence begins with a Speech Act Particle (SAP), often used in conjunction with a Qualifier. The SAPs fall into three types: Evidentials, Mood Indicators, and Speech Act Indicators.  More than one SAP can also be used sometimes at the beginning of a sentence.  A complete sentence often may consist of nothing but the Speech Act Particle:


The combined forms appear as ''prefixes'':


==== Evidentials ====
{|
{|
| '''fwíada-''' || '''jíoqda-''' || '''daeada-''' || '''qhowda-''' || '''qhawda-''' || '''doida-'''
| '''huia''' || 1st Person Objective, ''i.e. "I experienced it (external perception)"''
|-
| '''fwuia''' || 1st Person Visual. ''i.e. "I witnessed it"''
|-
| '''awo''' || 1st Person Auditory, ''i.e. "It sounds to me like"''
|-
| '''ía''' || 1st Person Subjective, ''i.e. "I experienced it (internal perception)"''
|-
| '''skyea-tae''' || 1st Person Psionic ''i.e. "I know it from a dream, vision, intuition, etc."''
|-
| '''ámiña''' ||   ,i.e. ''"I heard from someone who said s/he experienced it"''
|-
| '''ámiñ-tae''' || ,i.e. ''"I heard from someone who said s/he witnessed it"''
|-
|-
| '''(a') phx-a''' ||  ,i.e. ''"I heard from someone unreliable  who said s/he experienced it"''
| '''fwíaha-''' ||  '''jíoqha-''' ||  '''daeaha-''' || '''qhowha-''' || '''qhawha-''' || '''doiha-'''
|-
|-
|| '''phx.a-tae''' || ,i.e. ''"I heard from someone unreliable who said s/he witnessed it"''
| '''fwíasm-''' || '''jíoqsm-''' || '''daeasm-''' || '''qhowsm-''' || '''qhawsm-''' || '''doism-'''
|-
|-
|}
|}




==== Mood Indicators ====
 
Examples: ''('''sbaí''' "surface, table")''
* '''fwíada-sbaí''' - "(Somewhere) above the top the table"
* '''fwíaha-sbaí''' - "On top of the table"
* '''fwíasm-sbaí''' - "Above the table (not touching it)"
 
 
 
 
=== Genitives ===
 
The ''Genitives'' are the ''Particles'' that clarify the relationship between ''Roots''.  The structure used is ''Predicate - Genitive - Argument'' - where the  ''Predicate'' is a ''Root'', of which further information about it is given by the ''Argument'' , which is also a ''Root''.  The meaning would translate to "The X (''Predicate'') ''OF'' Y (''Argument'')".  The Genitive, then, clarifies what type of ''OF'' is being referred to:
 
 
{|
{|
| '''mpaha''' ||  Opiniative (Probable) Mood
| ''Primary Form'' || ''Meaning''
|-
| '''sempa''' ||  Opiniative  (Negative Probability) Mood
|-
|-
| '''xweña''' ||   Expectant Mood
| ''' wa-  ''' || '' Of (generic)  ''
|-
|-
| '''qhwui-a''' ||  1st Person Imperative Mood
| ''' cor- ''' || '' Of (explicit) Agent ... ''
|-
|-
| '''fo''' || Irrealis Mood
| '''han-''' || ''Associated with, Correlated with, Identified with''
|-
|-
| '''(a)skyea''' || Dreaming (Psionic) Mood
| '''am-''' || ''Portion, part of''
|-
|-
|}
| '''ho-''' || ''Attributed with, Filled with''
 
 
==== Speech Act Indicators ====
{|
|  '''eia''' || Narrative Speech Act
|-
|-
| '''a''' || Subjective (Non-Realis) Speech Act
| '''mois-''' || ''Composed of''
|-
|-
| '''xe'a''' || Interrogative Speech Act
| '''wor-''' || ''Functioning as, In the role of''
|-
|-
| '''mú''' || 2nd Person Interrogative Speech Act
| '''than-''' || ''(Of) Benificiary''
|-
|-
| '''sei, es''' || Negative Statement or Negative Imperative Speech Act
| '''t'ei-''' || ''(Of) Benefactor''
|-
|-
|}
|}




==== Qualifiers ====
 
{|
Examples: ''('''skyi' ''' "running", '''síah''' "deer", '''qhwol''' "writing, book", '''sío'gwoi''' "student", '''thinc''' "wall (freestanding)", '''píoñ''' "stone",  '''ñama''' "food, meal" )''
|  '''ido-''' || ''Indicates the Evidential source''
* '''skyi' wa-síah'''  - "Deer's running"
|-
* '''síah ho-skyi'''' - "Deer which is/are running"
| '''añ-''' ||  ''Topicalizing'' Particle
* '''qhwol hañnsío'gwoi''' - "A/the suden'ts book"
|-
* '''píoñ am-thinc''' - "Stone from a/the wall, Stone part of the wall"
| '''m, -magyi''' ||  ''Indicates a 2nd Person Referent''
* '''thinc mois-píon''' - "Wall made of stone"
|-
* '''ñama thañ-xean''' - "Meal for me "
|}
* ''' ñama t'ei-magyi''' - "Meal that you (2p)  prepared (''for someone'')" 
* ''' ñama than-xean t'eimagyi''' - "Meal that you prepare for me"
 
 
==== wa- / cor- ====
 
These ''Generic'' forms are often the basis for complete sentences:
 
* '''fwoia skyi' wasíah:''' "I see deer running."
* '''eia phoi wasíah:''' "(They say) the deer are happy."
* '''mú sío'gwoi wamagyi:''' "Are you a student?"
 
 
 
Notice the distinction in meaning (as well as form) when using the non-Agency form of ''Generic Genetive'' as compared to the ''Agency'' form.  This is the distinction that applies to ''Agency'' vs. ''Non-Agency'' across the board in the draga language: 
 
 
'' ('''mía''' means "aid, facillitate, allow, give, etc.") ''
* '''ía míac:'''  "I help, etc. or, am helped, etc."
* '''ía míac wasío'gwoi:''' "I help (a/the) student." or, "A/the student helps me" ''literally, "I experience aiding of student."
* '''ía mía cor'sío'gwoi:'''  "The student helps me." ''i.e. the student is the Agency of the aid''




In case you might be wondering how to specify that it is "I" who helps the student, the best way to go would probabaly be:  "'''ía mía thañsío'gwoi:'''"


=== Syntax ===


draga makes no noun-verb distinction, so its syntactical pattern cannot be accurately described in terms of VSO, VOS, etc.  ''It might be best described as '''head-initial, with a free word order'''.''




*The syntactical pattern can also be described (''perhaps more confusingly'') as a linkage of '''Predicate - (Relationship Particle) - Argument''' constructions, which are themselves linked by meta-Relationship Particles.  A ''Predicate'' will necessarily be present in any construction.  The ''Argument'' modifies the idea established by a Predicate, and is optional but usual.  A Predicate may also be distributed over multiple Arguments.  The ''Relator'' (relationship particle) explicates the relationship between the Predicate and its Argument, and is also optional in many cases. Often, the relationship may be implied from context.  The relationship particles themselves fall into two categories: ''Genitives'' and ''Conjunctions''. 
==== Agency and the Senses ====




* Typical roles of "Agent", "Patient", "Subject", "Object", et cetera, are not grammatically marked in draga.  These roles are not necessarily important in the "whole-picture"-view of the culturally draga perspective, especially since they are often apparent from context.  The concepts however, can be very clearly expressed by use of locative constructions, or (even more frequently) conjunctive particles.  Single-word clauses are not at all unusual in draga, since any given Root is implicitly both active ''and'' substantive.




So... for years I've tried to describe draga sentence structure in "technical" or "scientific"-type terminology, but it has been so unintuitive with regards to how the language is actually used to translate thoughts into sounds.  Very little gets done this way.  draga really does have quite a simple structure, probably better illustrated in terms of its regular sentence patterns:


==== thañ- / t'ei- ====


'''ía ... ''' /  '''mú ... '''


This is a very basic, common and useful sentence pattern.  Learn a few vocabulary words and you can begin very rudimentary draga conversation.  The Speech Act Particle (SAP) '''ía''' means ''I experience(d) it internally or subjectively''.  The SAP '''mú''' is used to ask a question where ''you (2nd person)'' are the subject.  Thus:
* '''ía sofa: ''' I am content.
* '''mú phuia:''' Are you happy?
* '''mú fwae:''' Do you like it?
* '''mú yrlyaña:''' Are you (going) toward home?
* '''ía lyañadae:''' I am at home.
* '''mú skyá: ''' Are you running? Do you run?
* '''ía haña: ''' I am (a) human/person -or- I experience (that it was) a person/human. '' So, for further clarification: ''
* '''ía wui haña:''' / '''ía haña wui:''' I experience that there/it was a person.  ('''wui''' means ''Manifestation, instantiation'')
* '''ía haña-tui: ''' I experience (some) people/person.
* '''ía phahaña-tui: ''' I (viscerally) experience a/the person. ''The strong definite article is needed here, because a specific person is being referred to.''
* '''ía yíam-haña:''' I [experience(d)] becoming-a-human. i.e. I am human. '' But this more likely means "I am becoming a human": ''
* '''ía yíamhaña hae:''' I becoming-a-human have-done-it(perfective).  '' Which fully clarifies  "I am (a) human" ''. Despite this clarification, the ambiguous original ('''ía haña''') is the most likely ''off the cuff'' usage.   


The affixes '''-tui''' ''(strong visceral experience)'' and '''yíama-''' ''(becoming, arriving at a state)'' are listed above under Root Morphology.  The word '''hae''' belongs to a class of words that are ''phrase-final'' forms of specific roots.  These forms always appear only at the end of a phrase, and cannot be modified by prefix or suffix.  '''hae''' is the phrase final form of '''haáñ''' which means "Something that has (already) been done or completed":


* '''mú haáñ: ''' / '''mú hae:''' Have you done it (yet)? Are you done?


A couple other useful phrase finals include '''kyae (kyeañ)'''  ''Need or want'', and '''sae (sei)''' ''No, not''


* '''mú sofa kyae:''' Do / don't you need contentment?
==== wor- ====
* '''ía sae:''' Not me. It wasn't me.  It's not mine. etc.
* '''ía sei kyeañ:''' / '''ía kyeañ sae:'''  I don't want/need  it.


A common shortened form of '''ía sei...''' is '''íase''':  
This ''Particle'' means  ''"(used) in the role of"'' or ''"as"''.  However, its broad usage allows for a good deal of information to be expressed in a compact way:


* '''íase yrlyaña kyae:''' I don't want to go home.


* '''ía thinc worhyeuc:'''  "I use the wall as a seat."
* '''eia píon worqhwol:'''    "They say it's written on a stone.", ''literally, stone as book (i.e. any written media)''
* '''fwoia síah wornamaza:'''  "I saw  [them] making a meal of the deer.", ''i.e. deer as [referent's] meal''


'''mú wañ ... ( dañ ... )'''


The word '''wañ''' is the interrogative pronominal root.  It means ''Who? What? Which? etc.''. It is used in conjunction with the interrogative SAP's ''mú'' and ''xe'a '':


* '''mú wañ:''' What's up with you? How are you? What are you doing? Etc. ''A short colloquialism for this common sentence is '''múañ:'''  ''
* ''' mú lyaña wan:''' / '''mú wañ lyaña:'''  Which home is yours?
* '''mú míeqs wañ:''' / '''mú wañ míeqs:''' Where are you? ('''míeqs''' means ''Place, location'')
* '''mú fwae wañ:''' / '''mú wañ fwae:''' What do you like?
* '''mú haña wañ ielyaña''' / '''mú wañ haña ielyaña:''' What person/people are at your home.
The word '''dañ''' is a ''Conjunctive'' particle meaning ''About, Concerning, With regards to, etc.''.  It is the most commonly used and productive conjunctive particle in draga usage:


* '''mú wañ dañ tyouñ:''' What are you thinking? ('''tyoun''' means ''Immediate, conscious thoughts'')
* '''mú míeqs wañ dañ kwou:''' Where are you going? ('''kwou''' means ''Movement in a direction'')   


==== ''Genitives'' with ''Pronimals'' ====


 
'''fwuia ... '''


This is another very important basic sentence pattern.  The word '''fwuia''' indicates that ''I (1st Person) personally witness this with my own eyes''.  It specifically refers to direct visual evidence without inference:


* '''fwuia:''' I see.  I witness it. etc.
* '''fwuia hae:''' I saw what happened.
* '''fwuia jwae:''' I see that it is indeed the case. ''The word '''jwae''' is the phrase-final form of '''jweia''' "Yes, Affirmative"
* '''fwuia siha x'phyala:''' (I see) the grass is green, i.e. '''siha''' ''Green'', '''x'phyala''' ''Of grass''
* '''fwuia skyá x'seahañ:''' (I see) the deer run, i.e. '''skyá''' ''Running'', '''x'seahañ''' '' Of deer''
* '''fwuia lyañayir x'haña:''' (I see) a person going home,i.e. '''lyañayir''' ''(Going) toward home'', '''x'haña''' ''Of (a) person''
* '''fwuia lyañayir x'phayañ:''' (I see) her/him going home.


The word '''phayañ''' illustrates how pronominal roots are formed, from the ''definite article + genitive suffix''.  The list being: ''' phaxeañ / phayac, phaweiaqs, phamui / phayañ, phamagyi, phalor, phakwui, phafeas, phakwuifes'''.  These have already been listed above in Root Morphology.                   
==== Genitive and Locative transformation with '''dei''' ====




Examples:


'''a ... dañ ...'''


The SAP '''a''' indicates an indeterminate truth or evidence value of the information that follows. The following pattern can be used with most any SAP. What is important here is the role of '''dañ''', which as mentioned above is the most productive ''conjunctive particle'' in draga, and means ''About, concerning, with regards to, etc.''  
Genitive
* '''(pha-) ho-skyi' dei síah'''  <== ''síah ho-skyi' ''
* '''(pha-) wor-ñama dei síah'''  <== ''síah wor-ñama''
* '''(pha-) han-sío'gwoi dei qhwol ''' <== ''qhwol háñ -sío'gwoi''


* '''ía phui dañ kyíafa:''' I am happy to understand. ('''phui''' is a variation of '''phuia''' ''Joy'', '''kyíafa''' means ''Recognize, realise, understand, "know", etc.'')
* '''a phuiamei dañ kyíafa:''' S/he is happy to understand.
* '''a phuiamei dañ kyíafaxeañ:''' S/he is happy that I understand. 
* '''a píomei dañ tyouñ:''' He talks ('''pío''') about what he is thinking.
* '''a phaxeañ píomei dañ tyouñ:''' He talks (to) me about what he is thinking.
'' ''


* '''a kyíomei lagyi: ''' = '''a kyíomei dañ lagyi:'''  S/he gives (someone) a ring''':'''
Locative
* '''a kyíomei phaxeañ dañ lagyi:''' He gives ('''kyío''') me a/the ring ('''lagyi''').
* '''(pha-) yalyíañ dei sío'gwoi''' <== ''sío'gwoi (ho-) ya-lyíañ''
* '''a phaxeañ kyíomei dañ lagyi:''' He gives me a/the ring.
* '''(pha-) swor-kyíaf dei sío'gwoi''' <==  ''sío'gwoi  (ho-) swor-kyíaf''
* '''a kyíomei lagyi dañ phaxeañ:''' To me, he gives a/the ring.
* '''(pha) lyían-teyou dei xean''' <== ''xean (ho-) lyían-teyou''
* '''a kyío lagyi x'phaxeañ dañ haxa:''' = '''a lagyi x'kyíomei phaxeañ dañ haxa:'''  He gives me a ring, (because of) love ('''haxa''' ''Romantic love''). 
'' ''


* '''íase fwae dañ lyeaq:''' I don't like that smell ('''lyeaq''').   


From these examples, you can also see that any complete ''Genitive'' or ''Locative'' construction may be treated as a ''Root'' in its own right - which can then also serve as either ''Predicate'' or ''Argument''.


'''a... h' ...'''


The word '''hei''' is often pronounced /ʜə/, and usually spelled ''' h' '''.  It is a ''conjunctive particle'' that can often be translated as "and (also), in addition"  - it indicates a concatenation or continuation of the preceding idea, or a compounding of the information: 
=== pha- + Particle ===
*


The word '''hei''' takes variant forms when used as continuance of certain SAPs:
The ''Definite Particle'' '''pha-''' can be prefixed to of the above ''Particles'' to obtain a ''Root''.  You may have noticed that the ''Root'' forms of the ''Pronominals'' were formed this way (''pha-yac, pha-xíán, pha-meí, pha-magyi, pha-yañ, pha-lor, pha-dae, pha-feas, pha-kwoi, pha-kwoiaf''):
*


* '''pha-sfíi'''
* '''pha-tyigi'''
* '''pha-fír'''
*  '''pha-qhwo'''
* '''pha-yalo'''
* '''pha-baó'''
* '''pha-t'aó'''
* '''pha-yaó'''
* '''pha-tyíw'''
* '''pha-sear'''
* '''pha-tyou'''
* '''pha-fir'''
* '''pha-teyou'''
* '''pha-mieqs'''
* '''pha-míesq'''


'''fo ... ( a ... ) '''


The SAP '''fo''' indicates that the following statement is hypothetical.  It begins ''if/then'' statements, but also commands and wishes:
* '''pha-wos-kwae'''
* '''pha-mor-kwae'''
* '''pha-sdá-kwae'''
* '''pha-jeuqda-kwae'''
* '''pha-qhawsm-kwae'''
et cetera






'''xe'a wañ ... ( dañ ... ) '''
=== Active Particles ===


There are several ''Particles'' which can be used to modify the meanings of ''Roots'' to make them refer to various manners of activity or action: 


*''' ïama- '''  ''Approaching / arriving at a state''
* '''sama-''' ''Departure from a state''
* '''hi-, hieñ-''' ''Associated action or result''
* '''fía-''' ''Multiple manifestations grouped as a single instance; Done totally, completely, to the fullest extent''
* '''hío-''' ''Using''


'''xe'a ... ( dao ... ) '''


Examples:
* '''ïamaskyi''''  ''Starting to run, Coming into a state of running, etc.''
* '''ïamapíoñ'''  ''Turn into stone''
* '''ïamakyïaf'''  ''Coming to understand, know, etc.''
* '''samphoi'''  ''Becoming unhappy''
* '''samsío'gwoi'''  ''Quitting being a student''
* '''hiqhwol'''  ''Read a book; write a boot, etc.''
* '''hiskyi''''  ''Run, really running, etc.''
* '''hiñama'''  ''Eat a meal; Prepare a meal''
* '''fíañama'''  ''Banquet, huge meal; A group of meals; Meals (we had together, etc.)''
* '''fíakyïaf'''  ''Completely, thoroughly understand''
* '''fía-hi-ñama'''  ''Totally devour''
* '''hío-pha-chaeq'''  ''Using this/ that cutting implement''
* '''ía híokyïaf:'''  "I [do it by] using [my] understanding / knowledge."




'''a ...'''




Line 697: Line 714:




'''Brief Examples Using Other SAPs '''
* ''' huia '''
* ''' awo skyá x'seahañ lalyañ-deqtou: '''  I hear deer running through the forest.
* ''' skyea kwou-weiaqs:''' I dreamt that we were going (someplace).
* ''' skyea-tae teia x'pía dañ paá:'''  I know from my dream, that my mother will find it.
* ''' ámiña '''
* ''' ámiñ-tae '''
* ''' px.a '''
* ''' px.a-tae '''
* ''' mpaha jwae:''' I think so (too).
* ''' sempa '''
* ''' xweña hae:''' I expect that it will be done.  ''(There is no future tense, but '''xweña''' will often express a similar idea)''
* ''' qhwui! a ñayo: ''' Let's eat!


=== Conjunctions ===




==== More Conjunctive Particles ====
==== Root Level ====


{|
{|
| '''dañ''' || "About, Regarding, With respect to, Concerning..."
| '''hloi''' || And; And / Or (Inclusive 'Or')
|-
|-
| '''ou''' ||  "And correspondingly / correlatedly / provoking..."
|-
| '''pái''' ||  "Intentionally provoking..."
|-
| '''la.qs.a''' ||  "Unintentionally provoking..."
|-
|-
| '''z'ou''' ||  "And of increasing correlation... "  
| '''sloi''' ||  Exclusive 'or'; Negative 'Or' ("nor")
|-
|-
| '''dasi''' || "In response to...", "Motivated by... "
| '''xli''' || Together with (inclusive emphasis)
|-
|-
| '''dada''' || "Intending (that)...", "In order to..."
| '''xwoi''' || Along with (exclusive emphasis)
|-
|-
| '''he'ae''' ||  "And surprisingly..."
|-
| '''chúmae''' ||  "And unsurprisingly..."
|-
| '''kwmaskwa, msqa'''  ||  "And then / simultaneously / simulfactively..."
|-
| '''m.yamwa''' ||  "Otherwise... "
|-
| '''saáñ''' ||  "Rather / Instead / But not... "
|-
| '''ñáwa''' ||  "However..."
|-
| '''ñúwi''' ||  "Although / Despite..."
|-
| '''m.miema''' ||  "Except... "
|-
| '''haf''' ||  "In comparison to... "
|}
|}




* '''fwoia síah hloi wúh:'''  "I see deer and/or dogs. (''wúh'')"
* '''fwoia síah sloi wúh:'''  "I see either a deer or a dog."
* '''es síah sloi wúh:'''  "It's neither a deer nor a dog."
* '''fwoia síah xli wúh:'''  "I see a deer and dog together.''
* '''fwoia síah xwoi wúh:'''  "I see a deer as well as a dog."
==== Phrasals: '''h' ''' ('''hyá''') and '''dañ''' ====
The phrasal ''Conjunctions'' '''hyá ''' and '''dañ''' are extremely important in creating lengthier and more complex sentences in draga.  They are used to join one phrase to another.
'''hyá ''' has the meaning of '' "In addition, and also, etc."'' and continues to add information to the idea expressed in the previous phrase:
* '''eia ca'wo yaxamlyíañ, hyá ïamasío'gwoi:'''
* ''' fwoia qhwol hansío'gwoidei thinctyíw,  hyá  worñama corsíah:'''
*  '''ía ïamapa'o, hyá ïamaca'wo, hyá ïamamadr, hyá ïamaphaex, hyá ïamaxoq, hyá ïamapa'o:'''
'''dañ ''' has the meaning of '' "With regards to, about, concerning, etc."'':
* ''' ía phoia dañ kyïafmagyi: '''
* ''' fwoia  thaña t'eisío'gwui dañ qhwol hotheiaxoi: '''
*  '''                '''
=== Speech Act Particles ===
Any draqa sentence begins with a Speech Act Particle (SAP), often used in conjunction with a Qualifier. The SAPs fall into three types: Evidentials, Mood Indicators, and Speech Act Indicators.  More than one SAP can also be used sometimes at the beginning of a sentence.  A complete sentence often may consist of nothing but the Speech Act Particle:
==== Evidentials ====
===== hoia ===== 
1st Person Objective, ''i.e. "I experienced it (external perception)"''
===== fwoia =====
1st Person Visual. ''i.e. "I witnessed it"''
===== awo =====
1st Person Auditory, ''i.e. "It sounds to me like"''
===== ía ===== 
1st Person Subjective, ''i.e. "I experienced it (internal perception)"''
===== skyea-tae ===== 
1st Person Psionic ''i.e. "I know it from a dream, vision, intuition, etc."''
===== ámiña ===== 
,i.e. ''"I heard from someone who said s/he experienced it"''
===== ámiñ-tae =====
i.e. ''"I heard from someone who said s/he witnessed it"''
===== (a') phx-a ===== 
,i.e. ''"I heard from someone unreliable  who said s/he experienced it"''
===== phx.a-tae ===== 
,i.e. ''"I heard from someone unreliable who said s/he witnessed it"''
==== Mood Indicators ====
===== mpaha =====
Opiniative (Probable) Mood
===== sempa =====
Opiniative  (Negative Probability) Mood
===== xweiña =====
Expectant Mood
===== qhwui-a =====
1st Person Imperative Mood
===== fo =====
Irrealis Mood
===== (a)skyea =====
Dreaming (Psionic) Mood
==== Speech Act Indicators ====
===== eia ===== 
Narrative Speech Act
===== a ===== 
Subjective (Non-Realis) Speech Act


==== Other Conjunctions ====
===== xe'a ===== 
Interrogative Speech Act


{|
===== mú =====  
| '''kyá''' || And; And / Or (Inclusive 'Or')
2nd Person Interrogative Speech Act
|-
| '''s.ña''' || Exclusive 'or'; Negative 'Or' ("nor")
|-
| '''ñaña'''  || Interrogative 'Or' (Inclusive)
|-
| '''ñeya'''  || Interrogative 'Or' (Exclusive)
|-
| '''xweu'''  || Together with (inclusive emphasis)
|-
| '''xwui'''  || Along with (exclusive emphasis)
|-
|}


===== sei, es ===== 
Negative Statement or Negative Imperative Speech Act




== Numbers ==


The draga number system is base-6. During the material height of the draga civilization, a base-30 system was devised and used for hundreds of years alongside the original base-6, and some vestiges can still be found, especially in the writing system and the calendar.
==== Qualifiers ====


{|
===== ido- =====  
! || base-6  || base-10 || || base-6 || base-10
|-
| '''yifa ''' ||  01 ''* pinky''  || 1  || '''ñe-xwae waer ''' (ñxwaewar) ||  24  || 16
|-
| '''yeña''' ||  02 ''* add ring'' || 2 || '''ñe-xwae mawo ''' (ñxwaemo)|| 25  || 17
|-
| '''dowx(a) ''' ||  03 ''* add middle''  || 3 || '''dowx-xwae ''' || 30  || 18
|-
| '''waer ''' ||  04 ''* add pointer'' || 4 || '''waer-xwae ''' || 40  || 24
|-
| '''mawo ''' ||  05 ''* add thumb''  || 5 || '''mawo-xwae ''' || 50  || 30
|-
| '''xweilo'''  ||  10 ''* close fist''  || 6 || '''xwae-xwae / welo  '''|| 1,00 || 36
|-
| '''hyawo'''  ||  11 || 7 || '''welo-yifa'''  || 1,01  || 37
|-
| '''fawo ''' ||  12 || 8 || '''welo-xwae ''' || 1,10 || 42
|-
| '''pií ''' ||  13 || 9 || '''yeña-welo ''' || 2,00 || 72
|-
| '''qhowei'''  ||  14 || 10 || '''dowxa-welo ''' || 3,00 || 108
|-
| '''amwae ''' ||  15 || 11 || '''waer-welo ''' || 4,00 || 144
|-
| '''ñe-xwae ''' ||  20 || 12 || '''mago-welo ''' (magwelo) || 5,00 || 180
|-
| '''ñe-xwae yifa ''' (ñxwaefa) ||  21  || 13 || '''xwae-welo ''' || 10,00 || 216
|-
| '''ñe-xwae yeña ''' (ñxwaeña) ||  22  || 14 ||'''welo-welo / wegwelo ''' || 1,00,00  || 1,296
|-
| '''ñe-xwae dowx ''' (ñxwaedow) ||  23  || 15 ||| '''áwolo  '''|| 1,00,00,00  || 46,656
|-
|}


''Indicates the Evidential source''


The ancient numbers 1-30 are still in use, but are not productive - slightly altered - beyond the number 36, (which is 1,00 in base-6):
===== añ- ===== 


''Topicalizing'' Particle


{|
===== m, -magyi =====
|  '''1''' fe-   || '''11''' fada  || '''21''' chor
|-
|  '''2'''  ña-  ||   '''12''' faw  ||   '''22''' chomwax
|-
|  '''3''' da-  ||   '''13''' fm  ||   '''23''' chox
|-
|  '''4''' wa-  ||   '''14''' fax  ||   '''24''' choiax
|-
|  '''5''' mye-  ||   '''15''' ofo  ||   '''25''' mema
|-
||  '''6''' xe-  ||   '''16''' fiáñ  ||   '''26''' fmña
|-
|  '''7''' hyaá  ||   '''17''' chofañ  ||   '''27''' bada
|-
|  '''8''' fwuí  ||   '''18''' ñabwi  ||   '''28''' hyawa
|-
||  '''9''' bií  ||   '''19''' miñaqoei  ||  '''29''' xomi
|-
|  '''10''' qúi  ||   '''20''' choda  ||  '''30''' xwoufa
|-
|}






Examples:


{|
| '''f'seahañ'''  ||  A single deer || '''seahañ-yif(a)''' || one deer
|-
|  '''ñ'seahañ''' || A pair of deer || '''seahañ-yeña''' || two deers
|-
|  '''d'seahañ''' || A trio of deer || '''seahañ-dowx''' || three deers
|-
| '''w'seahañ''' || A quartet of deer || '''seahañ-waer''' || four deers
|-
|  '''m'seahañ''' || A quintet of deer || '''seahañ-mawo''' || five deers
|-
|  '''xw'seahañ''' || A sextet of deer || '''seahañ-xwalo''' || six deers
|-
|}




== Special Roots ==


There are many Roots in draga whose meanings are often grammaticized in other languages. These include Roots that are Pronomial, Aspectual, that indicate Number, Intensity, Frequency, Consistency and even words with meanings like ''1p acting on 2p ("I do to you")'', ''3p acting on 1p ("S/he does to me")'', etc.




=== Kinship / Relationship ===


More commonly than Pronominal Roots, especially when talking in the Second person, it is preferable and considered much more sociable to use kinship or other personal-relationship terms:
=== Phrase Level Conjunctions ===


{|
{|
| '''pea, paí'''   || Mother, Mama
| '''dañ''' || "About, Regarding, With respect to, Concerning..."
|-
|-
| '''paya'''  ||  Mother, Mother's sibling
|-
|-
| '''fi-pea, fipaí'''   ||  Mother's younger sibling
| '''ou''' ||  "And correspondingly / correlatedly / provoking..."
|-
|-
| '''pea-ñou, paí-ño'''   || Mother's older sibling
| '''pái''' ||   "Intentionally provoking..."
|-
|-
| '''fía-fi-paí'''   || Mother's youngest sibling
| '''la.qs.a''' || "Unintentionally provoking..."
|-
|-
| '''fía-paí-ño'''   ||  Mother's oldest sibling
| '''z'ou''' ||  "And of increasing correlation... "
|-
|-
| '''mae'''   ||  Grandma
| '''dasi''' ||  "In response to...", "Motivated by... "
|-
|-
| '''maya'''   ||  Grandmother, Grandmother's sibling
| '''dada''' ||  "Intending (that)...", "In order to..."
|-
|-
| '''fi-mae'''   ||  Grandmother's younger sibling
| '''he'ae''' ||  "And surprisingly..."
|-
|-
| '''mae-ño'''   ||  Grandmother's older sibling
| '''chúmae''' ||  "And unsurprisingly..."
|-
|-
| '''fía-fimae'''   ||  Grandmother's youngest sibling
| '''kwmaskwa, msqa''' ||  "And then / simultaneously / simulfactively..."
|-
|-
| '''fía-mae-ñou'''   || Grandmother's oldest sibling
| '''m.yamwa''' || "Otherwise... "
|-
|-
| '''wica'''   ||  Younger sibling
| '''saáñ''' ||  "Rather / Instead / But not... "
|-
|-
| '''wiwica'''   ||  Youngest sibling
| '''ñáwa''' ||  "However..."
|-
|-
| '''píwi'''   ||  Older sibling
| '''ñúwi''' ||  "Although / Despite..."
|-
|-
| '''pipíwi'''   ||  Oldest sibling
| '''m.miema''' ||  "Except... "  
|-
| '''tíowa'''  ||  Cousin
|-
| '''fitíowa'''  ||  Younger cousin
|-
| '''tíowa-ñou'''  ||  Older cousin
|-
| '''twí'''  ||  Offspring, Sibling's offspring
|-
| ------------
|-
| '''figwi'''  ||  Primary partner
|-
| '''pwouxi'''  ||  "Soul" friend or partner
|-
| '''swae'''  ||  Lover, Sexual friend or partner
|-
| '''xaf'''  ||  Survival, domestic friend or partner
|-
| '''sehwiñ'''  ||  Mother's partner
|-
| '''sepaxi'''  ||  Mother's romantic / sexual partner at the time of pregnancy
|-
| '''se'alo'''  ||  Mother's friend
|-
| ------------
|-'''
| '''hiñda'''  ||  Acquaintance
|-
| '''hiña''' || Friendly Acquaintance
|-
| '''hui'''  ||  Friend
|-
| '''haxa'''  ||  Very close friend
|-
| ''' ''' || Temporary immediate friend
|-
| '''fago'''  ||  Stranger
|-
| '''xamtií'''  ||  Suitor, Person of mutual interest
|-
| '''twiís'''  ||  Classmate, Fellow, Group member
|-
| '''q"aña'''  ||  Friendly client or customer
|-
| '''q"om'''  ||  Regular client or customer
|-
| '''t'aám'''  ||  Business partner; Co-worker
|-
| '''chakyi'''  ||  Rival
|-
| '''jáo'''  ||  Adversary
|-
|-
| '''haf''' ||  "In comparison to... "
|}
|}






=== Interpersonal Action ===
=== Numbers ===
{|
| '''xweiam, xwemi'''  ||  ''1p Excl. → 2p'' ||  "I do it to you", "What I did to you"
|-
| '''xweiar, xir'''  || '' 1p Excl. → 3p''  ||  "I do it to her/him", "What I did to her/him"
|-
| '''xweiaf'''  ||  ''1p Excl. → 4p''  ||  "I do it to the other one", "What I did to the other one"
|-
| ------------
|-
| '''phweiañ''' || ''1p Incl. → 3p'' || "We do it to her/him", "What we did to them"
|-
| '''phweiaf''' || ''1p Incl. → 4p'' || "You do it to the other one", "What we did to the other one"
|-
| ------------
|-
| '''mweiax, mwexi'''  ||  ''2p → 1p''  ||  "You do it to me/us", "What you did to me/us"
|-
| '''mweiar, mir'''  ||  ''2p → 3p''  ||  "You do it to her/him", "What you did to her/him"
|-
| '''mweiaf'''  ||  ''1p → 4p''  ||  "You do it to the other one", "What you did to the other one"
|-
| ------------
|-
| '''lweiax, lwix'''  ||  ''3p → 1p''  ||  "S/he does it to me/us", "What s/he did to me/us"
|-
| '''lweiañ, lwim'''  ||  ''3p → 2p''  ||  "S/he does it to you", "What s/he did to you"
|-
| '''lweiaf'''  ||  ''1p → 3p''  ||  "S/he does it to the other one", "What s/he did to the other one"
|-
| ------------
|-
| '''feiax'''  ||  ''4p → 1p''  ||  "The other one does it to me/us", "What the other one did to me/us"
|-
| '''feiam'''  ||  ''4p → 2p''  ||  "The other one does it to you", "What the other one did to you"
|-
| '''feiar'''  ||  ''4p → 3p''  ||  "The other one does it to her/him", "What the other one did to her/him"
|-
|}




The draga number system is base-6. During the material height of the draga civilization, a base-30 system was devised and used for hundreds of years alongside the original base-6, and some vestiges can still be found, especially in the writing system and the calendar.


=== Aspectual ===
{|
{|
| '''yom'''  ||  ''Progressive''  ||  "Right now", "Doing it right now"
! || base-6 || base-10 || || base-6 || base-10
|-
| '''hae'''  || ''Perfective''  || "[Something that] Has/had/will have been done or completed"
|-
| '''seu'''  || ''Discontinuous''  || "Used to do / was doing, but no longer"
|-
| '''pyío'''  ||  ''Continuous''  || "Still doing, Keep on doing"
|-
| '''kyila'''  ||  ''Habitual''  ||  "Done regularly", "Habit"
|-
|-
| ------------
| '''ifa ''' ||  01 ''* pinky''  || 1  || '''íwa ñaxwae '''  ||  24  || 16
|-
|-
| '''kwiha'''   ||  || "Not yet", "Something not yet happened", before
| '''aña''' ||   02 ''* add ring'' || 2 || '''amwa ñaxwae '''|| 25 || 17
|-
|-
| '''kyaha'''   ||  || "Already", "Something already completed", after
| '''dows ''' || 03 ''* add middle''  || 3 || '''doxwae ''' || 30 || 18
|-  
|-  
| '''yom-kwiha'''  ||  || "About to begin"
| '''íwa ''' ||  04 ''* add pointer'' || 4 || '''íxwae ''' || 40  || 24
|-
| '''kwiha-yom'''   || ||   "Just starting"
|-
|-
| '''yom-kyaha'''   ||   || "Finishing up"
| '''amwa ''' || 05 ''* add thumb''  || 5 || '''maxwae ''' || 50  || 30
|-
|-
| '''kyaha-yom'''   ||  ||  "Just finished"
| '''ihoa''' || 10 ''* close fist'' || 6 || '''walo '''|| 1,00 || 36
|-
|-
| ------------
| '''hyawo'''  ||  11 || 7 || '''ifa walo'''  || 1,01  || 37
|-
|-
| '''sya'a'''   ||   || "A short time"
| '''ofwo ''' ||  12 || 8 || '''ihoa walo ''' || 1,10 || 42
|-
|-
| '''íoyo'''   || ||   "A long time"
| '''bií ''' || 13 || 9 || '''walo aña ''' || 2,00 || 72
|-
|-
| '''trwa'''   ||   || "Ending abruptly, suddenly"
| '''qhowei''' || 14 || 10 || '''walo dows ''' || 3,00 || 108
|-
|-
| '''wíwa'''   ||   || "Ending gradually"
| '''amwae ''' || 15 || 11 || '''walo íwa ''' || 4,00 || 144
|-
|-
| '''sya'atr'''   || || "Short and suddenly ending"
| '''ñaxwae ''' ||  20 || 12 || '''walo amwa''' || 5,00 || 180
|-
|-
| '''sya'awíw'''   || || "Short and gradually ending"
| '''ifa ñaxwae ||  21  || 13 || '''walo  ihoa''' || 10,00 || 216
|-
|-
| '''íotr'''   ||   || "Lengthy and suddenly endling"
| '''aña ñaxwae ||  22  || 14 ||'''wegwalo ''' || 1,00,00  || 1,296
|-
|-
| '''íowiw'''   ||   || "Lengthy and gradually ending"
| '''dows ñaxwae ''' || 23  || 15 ||| ''  ''' ||     ||  
|-
|-
|}
|}




Although the numbers are essentially base 6, you will notice that the counting numbers run from 1-12 (1-20, base 6), and once the count has arrived past 36 (100 base 6) - it continues to use the 1 -12 count, and it uses groupings of 36's rather than 6's:


* ''' ifa walo''' (37), '''aña walo''' (38), ''' dows walo''' (39), '''íwa walo''' (40), '''amwa walo''' (41), '''ihoa walo''' (42), ...
* ''' hyawo walo''' (43), '''ofwo walo''' (44), '''bií walo''' (45), '''qhowei walo''' (46), '''amwae walo''' (47), '''ñaxwae walo''' (48) ...'''
* ''' ifa ñaxwalo (=ñaxwae walo)''' (49) ,''' ...''',  *'''amwamaxwalo (=amwamaxwae walo) ''' (71)  , ''' walo aña''' (72)


=== Others ===
*note: '''mamaxwalo''' is generally preferred to '''amwamaxwalo'''




==== Numbers with Roots ====


Examples:
*  '''síaha-ifa '''  ''One deer''
* '''sohoi-ifa ñaxwalo''' ''Forty-nine (36+12+1) students''
* '''qhowa-walo aña''' ''Seventy-rwo (2*36) books''
* '''phoia-bií'''    ''Nine joys, joyous occasions, etc.''


==== Intensity ====


{|
| '''úalo , úgalo, lawor'''  ||  Extreme intensity, "Very, very"
|-
| '''skwui '''  ||  High intensity,"Very"
|-
| '''skwaer '''  ||  Moderate intensity, "Moderately"
|-
| '''skwala '''  ||  Mild intensity, "Mildly"
|-
| '''skwemya'''  ||  Low intensity, "Very slightly"
|-
| '''fewa / kyeu'''  ||  Overly-intense, Too (much)
|-
| '''sasa'''  ||  Under-intense, Too little
|-
| '''phweilo'''  ||  Good, "right" intensity or level
|-
| '''áwei(kya)'''  ||  More, More intense
|-
| '''weiwa(kya), wiwi'''  ||  Less, Less intense
|-
| '''ajíawa''' || Of varying/ modulating/ oscillating intensity
|}




==== Ordinals ====


==== Number ====
Ordinals are formed with a ''Locative'' construction, so that "first" is literally "at one", "fourth" is literally "at four", etc.:


{|
* '''síaha (ho-) yor-ifa'''  -  ''First deer''
| '''fía-fikwo'''  ||  All, every, each
* '''síaha (ho-) ifa-tyear'''  - ''First deer''
|-
* '''yor-ifa dei síaha'''   - ' 'First deer''
| '''fikwo'''  || Most
* '''ifa-tyear dei síaha''' ' -  ' First deer''
|-
| '''fíañ'''  ||  Many
|-
| '''kyíeca'''  || Some
|-
| '''tío'''   ||  A few
|-
| '''síama'''  ||  Very few
|-
| '''síama-fiq'''   || None
|-
| '''fewei'''  ||  Too many
|-
| '''míewei'''  ||  Too few
|-
| '''phweawei'''  ||  Good or "right" number
|-
| '''ajíawei''' || Of varying/ modulating/ oscillating degrees of number
|-
| '''áwei'''  ||  More
|-
| '''wiwi'''   ||  Fewer, Less
|-
| '''zewetya'''  || Usual, Quite Often
|-
| '''sbaelo'''  ||  Half the time, Somewhat often or common
|-
| '''sfíoña, safíoñ'''  ||  Infrequent, Unlikely
|-
| '''sfeudiñ'''   ||  Rare, Highly unusual / unlikely
|-
|}




==== Basic numeric sentences ====


==== Constistency ====
* '''fwoia bií dañ síaha:'''  ''I see nine deer.''
{|
* '''a walo wui:'''  ''There are thirty-six."
| '''wáowo'''  || Extremely consistent
* '''ía íwa dañ phoia:'''  '' I was pleased on (those) four occaions, I have four pleasures, etc.''
|-
| '''íwo'''  ||  Highly consistent
|-
| '''pomwo'''  ||  Moderately consistent
|-
| '''eswo ''' ||  Mildly inconsistent
|-
| '''p"ckya'''   || Highly inconsistent
|-
| '''fewo'''  ||  Overly-consistent
|-
| '''síawo'''  ||  Under-consistent
|-
| '''áweiwo'''  ||  More consistent
|-
| '''weiwo'''   || Less consistent
|-
| '''phwíawo'''  ||  Good, or "right" consistency, About the same consistency as
|-
| '''ajíawo''' || Of varying/ modulating/ oscillating consistency
|}






'''ala'''  is a Root meaning '' "iterations, repitions, counts, occurrences, times, etc":


*  ''' eia f'ala dañ síaha: '''    ''There was (exactly) one deer."
* ''' ía pha-ala íwa dañ phoia:'''  '' I was pleased on those four occassions.''








== Useful Expressions ==


{|
| '''a píawañ ciñ:''' || ''Hello, Goodbye''
|-
| '''a cawa:''' || ''Thank you, Your welcome, Please, It's okay''
|-
| '''mú wañ:''' || ''How are you?  What's up with ya?''
|-
| '''ía phuia:''' || ''I'm happy''
|-
| '''ía phíw:''' || '' I'm not doing so well''
|-
| '''ía xapo:''' || '' All's well, I'm chillin' ''
|-
| ''' fo mae: ''' || ''Excuse me, May I?, Help!''
|-
| '''a jwae:''' || ''Yes''
|-
| ''' a seiañ: ''' || ''No''
|-
| '''ía meqeña:''' || '' I'm hungry''
|-
| '''mú meqeña:''' || ''Are you hungry?''
|-
| '''mú fwae:''' || ''Do you like it? Would you recommend it?''
|-
| '''ía fwae:''' || ''I like it''
|-
| '''a hleu:''' || How nice! Beautiful!
|-
| '''qhwúi! a jwae:''' || ''Let's do it!''
|-
| ''' kyeafasae:''' || '' I don't know''
|-
| ''' íasefwae:''' || '' I don't like it''
|-
| ''' ía ñamaxa-meu: ''' || ''I very much enjoy the meal''
|-
| ''' fei-acawa:''', '''acawafei:''' || ''  Thank You Universe! (Almost like "Thanks be to God" or "Thank (you) God") ''
|-
| ''' xe'a wañ mieqs dañ... ''' || ''Where can I find ...''
|-
| ''' xe'a wañ t'aí dañ... ''' || ''Which way to ...''
|-
| ''' xe'a wañ dañ fou: ''' || ''What's up with the cannabis - (could you pass it please?)''
|-
|}




== añ dañ phïacaxou-háñpapeloxoi ("The Tower of Babel")  ==




== añ dañ phíacaxou-papeloxui ("The Tower of Babel")  [http://www.4shared.com/audio/xT2phXoj/papeloxui9.html | .mp3] ==
a phawoi peí -


eia fe'alatew dañ pïokyíax hosacatío dirxeña-háñmesis:




a phawui pei -
eia cada xr'kyïeñewapaá, hei hyañdoafbaí hohamorxiñdarxoi, h' ïamaphalyíañña:


eia fe'alatew dañ pígwokyeax ho-feañsieñ dirxeñamesis:


eia pïotyigi, baí - "qhwúi! a xígwo, hei híoxaeq dañ phawoi,
hei híopíoñ jwae, hei lofoña war cwae":


eia cada x'kyíeñewapa, hei hyañ-doasbaí húahamorxiñdarxui, hei yíamphalyaña-mei:


eia pïotyigi, baí - "qhwúi! a pehwo, hei xígwo dañ phïacalyañ xwoi phïaca ho-úaloxou":


eia pígwotyigi, báwa - "qhwui! a xígwo, hei heuxaeq dañ phawui,
h'baí - "ïamahíesda-skwaer dañ xeñaweiaqs: h'xweiña, fo phawoisieñ ou yamargya-de'tew ïamaxpíw-wix":
hei píoñ war quiokwae, hei lofoña war cwae":




eia pígwotyigi, báwa - "qhwui! a pehwo, hei xígwo dañ phíacalyañ xwui phaphíaca húa-úaloxou":
eia fwíatyoi YaHWaHoxoi, dada ïamakyïafadae dañ xígwo-phahaña hañ phïacalyañ hya phïaca-xou:


h'báwa - "yíamhíesda-skwaer dañ xeñaweiaqs: h'xweña, fo phawuisieñ ou yamargya-daqtew yíamxqaweipaweiaqs":


eia pïo YaHWaHoxoi, baí- "qoei! a-woi dañ haña":


eia fwíatyui YaHWaHoxui, dada yíamkyeafalor dañ xígwo-phahaña, hei phíacalyañ xwui phíaca-xou:
h'baí - "añfe'alatew fwoia dañ phakyïeñewa: h' añfe'alatew fwoia dañ hyírxñ:  


fwoia añpehwo hokwihayom, ou phyáoqo sei jïiwa dañ híewaphajorgaña":


eia pígwo YaHWaHoxui, báwa - "qoei! a-wui dañ haña":
baí - "fo yorjeuqdeixíañ, hei phapïoña xqemi, dada kyïafasieñ hañpïotyigi":


h'báwa - "añfe'alatew fwuia dañ phakyíeñewa: añfe'alatew fwuia dañ hyiírxñ:


fwuia añpehwo hokwihayom, ou phyáoqo sei jiwa dañ híewajorga-mei":


báwa - "fo jeuqyir-xeañ, hei phapígwomei xqemi x'phayac, dada kyíafasieñtyigi hañpígwo-mei":
eia woi YaHWaHoxoi, pái fíaxpíwña yamargya-de'tew,


he'eia sehaáñ xr'phïacalyañ hopapoloxoi-xñaq, dasi ie yormieqspa xqemi-YaHWaHoxui dirhyírxñ,


ou mieqspachou ïamafíaxpíw xr'hañapa dei yarmargya-de'tew: 


eia wui YaHWaHoxui, pái fíaxqaweipa-fñmei yamargya-daqtew, 
[[File:Example.jpg]]


he'eia sehae x'phíacalyañ hopapoloxui-dirxeña, dasi ie yr-mieqspa xqemi-YaHWaHoxui dirpígwo,


ou mieqspachou yíámfíaxqaweipa-hañapa, hei yarmargya-daqtew:




== Links ==
== Links ==


*[http://slxlr.true.ws/lang draqa Lessons]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/zine/slxlr/lang/script01.html Sample of Written draqa] | [http://www.angelfire.com/zine/slxlr/lang/script00.html Sample 2]
*[http://slxlr.true.ws/lang/script01.html Sample of Written draqa] | [http://slxlr.true.ws/lang/script00.html Sample 2]
*[http://www.4shared.com/audio/xT2phXoj/papeloxui9.html Listen to the Babel Text in mp3 format]
*[[draga Lexicon]]
*[[draga Lexicon]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:a priori conlangs]]
[[Category:a priori conlangs]]

Latest revision as of 01:45, 15 August 2014


This page provides an overview of the draqa (or, "draga", pron. '/t◌̪ɚ. æ. ɦæ/' ) language, and some of its lexical items. Draga is my own personal conlang, and is in daily use by a speakership of one. It is intended to useable by human beings, but I wanted to break a few universals in the process. The phonology comes from analysis of my personal random "babbling". I also wanted to pursue ways of thinking mostly alien to my native language (English) and culture (American/Black), and create a better vehicle for expressing certain personal, perhaps "mystic" experiences in everyday speech. The "lofty" goals, however, are relatively recent. Originally, it was just something fun to do.


Xeanpasyufei-vert.jpeg


Introduction

draqa (draga) is a personal constructed language, "spoken" by an exile population who call their homeland Qhrya. Technically, "draqa" (with a 'q') refers to an ancient form of the language, and "draga" (with a 'g') to the modern language; however, the spelling "draqa" is often used for either. Even more ancient -.preceding draqa - is draga (pronounced /dra. ga/ and technically referred to as proto-draga), which evolved from dragat.


The history of the draga people is quite mysterious. Apparently, the civilization of Qhrya arose in the North American continent, contemporary with (but not related to) the second Atlantean civilization (~28,000 B.C.) Within 1.000 years of that cataclysm, Qhrya was completely sacked, leaving fewer than 2,000 souls to wander for almost 200 years. Finding no respite, apparently the nation astrally projected themselves en masse into a parallel reality, where they have continued to thrive. The prophecies say that eventually the nation will reincarnate into this world in the 20th, 21st and 22nd centuries, at first scattered across the continents but eventually re-unified into a small nation again.

The draga are a dream-travelling people, whose primary mode of long-distance (as well as inter-dimensional and temporal) travel is astral-projection. Hence, culturally and linguistically, they are easily adapted to "primitive", "high-tech" and even "psychic" environments.


Phonetic Inventory

Consonants

labial dental alveolar palatal velar post-velar glottal
plosives: pʼ (p) t_ tʼtz ʈ cʼ(c) kʷ kʲ q ʔ
aspirates: pʰ tʰ cʰ qʰ
fricative: f (ʰɸ) (ð) s ʃ (ç) (x) ʜ ɦ
liquids: w l j
trills: ʙ̥ r̥ ʀ̥
nasals: m (n_) (n) ɲ
implosives: ɓ (ʘʷ) ǃ


Vowels

i ʊ
ʷɔˑ
ə(ʌ) ɚ
æ


Orthography / Phonological Considerations

Transliteration of the draga language uses 25 characters of the Roman alphabet: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, ñ, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w, x, y, z - and the single-quote ( ' ) symbol to represent the sounds. In addition, the acute accent is used to represent pitch-accenting: á í ú. Traditionally, draga is written in a native alphabetic script that is supplemented by many logographs which are used to represent the most frequently used particles and lexemes. For some unfathomable reason, there is also a rare transliteration scheme which utilizes the Coptic alphabet.


Consonants

p [pʼ] or [p] ph [pʰ]
d [t_] initially ; [d_] or [ð] medially ; [ð] after 'ñ': ñd [n_ð]
t' [tʼ] t [tʰ] ty [ʈ]
c [cʼ] or [c] ch [cʰ]
q [q] qh [qʰ] kw [kʷ] ky [kʲ]
f [f], [ʰɸ] before 'w': fw [ʰɸw]
s [s] j [tʼz] or [tz] x [ʃ]
m [m]
ñ [ɲ], [n_] before 'd': ñd [n_ð]
w [w], [ʘʷ] (bilabial click) following initial syllabic 'm': mw [mʘʷ]
l [l]
y [j]
h [ʜ], [x] before 'l' or 'w', [ç] before 'y' g [ɦ] (voiced /h/)
b [ɓ] (bilabial implosive)
z [ǃ] (alveolar implosive, i.e. click)
p" [ʙ̥] (voiceless bilabial trill)
t" [r̥] (voiceless alveolar trill)
q" [ʀ̥] (voiceless post-velar trill)
' [ʔ] ; or abbreviated spelling of certain prefixes: x'-, h'-, f'-


Vowels

  • ï, í, i /i/
  • á, a /æ/
  • ae /æeˑ/
  • e /əˑ/
  • ou /ʷɔˑ/
  • ú / ó, o /ʊ/
  • r, rr (ë) /ɚˑ/


Draga is a pitch-accented language:

  • i, a, e, o, r are intoned at median pitch. They are considered unaccented.
  • í, á, ë are intoned at high pitch - typically 3-5 whole tones above the median.
  • ï is intoned at very high pitch - typically 5 - 8 whole tones above the median.
  • ú is intoned with a high, falling pitch, while ó is intoned with a high pitch.
  • ae is obviously a dipthong, but is treated as an invididual vowel. It is intoned at median pitch.
  • ou is always intoned with a slightly long, low pitch - typically 3-5 whole tones below the median.



Rhoticization.

Some vowels can be found rhoticized:

  • ír, ir, ár, ar, aer, or



Special Cases:

  • ïr is intoned falling from very high pitch to median.
  • úor is intoned falling from high pitch to low pitch.
  • ra is intoned falling from high pitch to median.



Spelling Conventions

The following spellings are found interchangably in draga transliteration, ea and eu being the most commonly used:

  • io = iu = eu
  • ia = ea


Syllable and Word Structure

draga Syllables are formed as follows:


C1 = Any Consonsant, or †Cluster ; V = Any Vowel or Compound ; C2 = Any Final Consonant: ( f, m, w, p", s, c, x, ñ, q) 

(C1) - (V) - (C2 |/ʔ/)
  • V (/ʔ/).
  • C2.
  • C1 - V (/ʔ/).
  • C1 - C2.
  • C1 - V - C2.

†Allowable Consonant Clusters: pw, py, phw, phy, phl, tw, tl, jw, zw, z', qhw, qhl, xw, xl (sl), fw/hw, hl, hy, gw, gy, ml, lw, ly, bw, by


draga Roots are typically 1-2 syllables in length, and generally begin with any sound but g /ɦ/. The phone e /ə/ is thus far unattested formally as a final vowel, and the phone ' /ʔ/ never ends a word.


Useful Expressions

a píawañ ciñ: Hello, Goodbye
a jawa: Thank you, Your welcome, Please, It's okay
mú wañ: How are you? What's up with ya?
ía phoi: I'm happy, doing well, in a good mood
ía phíw: I'm not doing so well
ía xapo: All's well, I'm chillin'
fo mía: Excuse me, May I?, Help!
a jwae: Yes
a sae: No
ía meqeña: I'm hungry
mú meqeña: Are you hungry?
mú fwae: Do you like it? Would you recommend it?
ía fwae: I like it
a hleu: How nice! Beautiful!
qhwúi! a jwae: Let's do it!
íaskyïaf: I don't know
íasfwae: I don't like it
ía ñamaxa-meu: I very much enjoy the meal
fei-ajawa:, ajawafei: Thank You Universe! (Almost like "Thanks be to God" or "Thank (you) God")
xe'a wañ mieqs dañ... Where can I find ...
xe'a wañ t'ou dañ... Which way to ...
xe'a wañ dañ fou: What's up with the cannabis - (could you pass it please?)



Grammar Notes

Preface

draga has two types of morphemes, Particles and Roots. Roots are generally "content" words, and include what would be Nouns, Verbs and Adjectives in English, even Adverbs. None of those distinctions are made in the draga language, and theoretically, any applicable Particle can be used with any Root. So, to say lyíañc "Home + My (My home)", skyi'c "Running + My (I run)", and phoiac "Joyful + My (I am happy)" - the same construction is used throughout. Of course, skyi'c could also mean "My running" or "My run"; and phoiac could mean "My joy" depending on context.


This context is based on a relationship between a Predicate and its Argument(s), which are the roles available to Roots in the draga language. A Predicate may or may not be modified, or juxtaposed, with one or multiple Arguments - and the relationship of these Roots (or phrases) to each other may or may not be made more explicit by some Particle. This is the general role of Particles in the draga language: to modify the meaning of a Root, or to clarify the relationships among Roots or phrases.


However, there is a special type of Particle in draga which is always essential. This is the Speech Act Particle (SAP), which is always the beginning of a sentence. The SAP may contain evidential, or mood information - or it may indicate that a question is being asked, a command given, etc. Often, an SAP may be the whole sentence all by itself.


Some basic SAPs that will be useful right away:


  • ía Introduces a subjective personal 1st person (me, my) experience: ía phoi: "I am happy, i.e. I experience joy."
  • fwoia Indicates that "I witness(ed) this personally": fwoia phoiaña: "I see that s/he is happy."
  • mú Is used to asked a 2nd person (you) question: mú phoi: "Are you happy?"
  • eia Is used when telling stories, or relating information one has overheard at some point, but not having experience it personally: eia phoiaña: "S/he was happy", "They say that s/he is happy."
  • es Is used to express a negative sentence: es phoiaña: "S/he is not happy


BTW, the punctuation mark ' : ' indicates the end of a draga sentence.


Demonstratives

Definite Particles

There are two Definite Particles in draga, the weak and the strong definite particles. The weak particle acts like "the", "some", "this", etc. in referring to a specific instance of what you're talking about:


  • pha-lyían, lyían-paá Home, the home, this home, my home, etc.
  • pha-haña, haña-paá This / that / the human being
  • pha-síah, síah-paá The deer, etc.
  • pha-laex, laex-paá The drinking water
  • pha-skyi' , skyi' -paá Running, The run, this running, etc.


The weak (or Iconic) definite particle creates a word referencing an iconic or essential form of the concept at hand. Examples of this kind of thing in English would be: "The MAN", "Big Government", "Justice", "The Law", "God", "They", etc. Fittingly, of course, none of those particular examples are concepts that actually exist in the draga language:


  • mía-pa
  • súa-pa
  • xían-pa
  • syú-pa
  • hloiso-pa



Count Particles

Any draga Root can be prefixed with one of the number particles to indicate a count of up to six:


  • f'- one
  • ñ'- two
  • d'- three
  • w'- four
  • m'- five
  • xw'- six
  • tío- several, many
  • fma- very many, a multitude


Examples:

  • f'síah "a single deer"
  • w'skyi' "four runs"
  • fmaphoi "many joys, joyous occasions, etc."


The Particle sei negates any Root it precedes:

  • seisíah "not a deer"
  • seiskyi' "not running"
  • seiphoi "not happy"



Distal Particles

sfi- -sfía Reflexive
tyígi - -tyigi Reciprocal
for- -fír Immediate ("Right here")
kwo- -qhwú Proximal ("Next to, nearby)
yálo- -yalo Peri-Proximal ("Right over there, close by")
báo- -baó Distal ("Over there, in the distance")
t'áo- -t'aó Absent ("Not here, out of view / earshot")


Examples: (aeaq "person", phoia "joy")

  • aeaq-sfía / sfi-aeaq "The person her/himself"
  • phoi-sfía / sfi-phoi "Self-joy, enjoy one's self"
  • aeaq-tyigi / tyígi-aeaq "Those reciprocating each other"
  • phoi-tyigi / tyígi-phoi "Enjoy each other, Give each other joy"
  • for-aeaq / aeaq-fír "This person here, me"
  • phoi-fír / for-phoi "This (immediate) joy"
  • t'áo-aeaq / aeaq-t'aó "Person who is not here"
  • phoi-t'aó / t'áo-phoi "Joy which is (perhaps figuratively) absent"



Pronominals

Personal Pronominal forms come in two flavors: Generic and Agency. The Generic form does not specify anything about the relationship between the pronominal (i.e. the "person") and the Predicate it is related to. The Agency form specifically indicates that the "person" has acted in some way with regard to the concept described by the Predicate. This agency is not necessarily volitional (intentional) or even animate.


Root Prefix (Generic) Generic Suffix Agency Suffix Person
xean xi- -(w)(e)c -xui 1st Person Exclusive
phaweiaqs wox- -weax -weiaqs 1st Person Inclusive
phamagyi mi- -magyi -mmo 2nd Person
phaen nir -ña -za *Referent (2nd or 3rd Person)
phayañ phadae -da -dae 3rd Person Animate/ Abstract
phakwoi phakwoi -kwoi -kwoi 3rd Person Inanimate
phafeas phafeas -feas -feas 4th Person (Obviate) Animate/ Abstract
phakwoiaf phakwoiaf -kwoiaf -kwoiaf 4th Person (Obviate) Inanimate


  • The Referent is the "person" under discussion, or the "main character", per se. In classic draga there was no specific Pronominal form for 2p direct address, and it's use is still relatively infrequent - primarily for clarity, emphasis or endearment. The Referent is a 3rd person form (animate, abstract or inanimate), whose reference can be "switched" to indicate a 2nd person, i.e. "S/he (which is you)."


  • The Generic and Agency forms refer to whether or not the pronominal suffix indicates a general relationship of cause or influence, e.g. síahec would refer to a deer that *I am associated with (in any given way), whereas síahaxoi would refer to a deer which *I have acted upon or influenced in some way.


Examples: (sbaí "surface, table", skyi' "running", phoia "joy", siha "green")

  • sbaí-c "My table" (That I own, or is related to me in some way)
  • sbaí-xoi "My table" (That I act upon in some way)
  • skyi'-weax "Our running", "We run/ran¨ or even ¨We were run¨
  • skyi'-weiaqs "Running that we do/did/are doing"
  • phoia-na "His/her joy", "S/he is happy"
  • siha-ña "It's green-ness", "It is green", "Her/your green (-ness) (-ing) (thing)", etc.
  • siha-za ¨The greening/greenness/etc. that s/he (or you) influence/act-upon¨, etc.



wañ

wañ is a Pronominal which is used in Interrogative statements, and means "which? what? where? how?,who? why?" etc. Its use will be discussed further on.


phawoi, paá

These particles are similar to Spanish "lo" , and refer to "the one under discussion" - often translatable to "that one, this one, him, her, it, etc." Its usage will also be explicated further on.



Locatives

The Locatives are Particles that indicate location, motion and direction. However, their broad usage allows for simple creation of useful sentences:


Unbound Semi-bound Fully Bound
ie' at, in, on, to, toward, from
ya- -yaó toward
fwor-, ya- -tyíw at, in, on
phya- -pyír successfully to
swor- -sear unsuccessfully toward
chou- -tyou (originating) from
-fir in the general direction of
-teyou in a general direction away from


Examples: (lyían "home", kyïaf "understanding", phoi "joy")

  • ya-lyían "Toward home", "Going home"
  • kyíaf-sear "Try unsuccessfully to understand"
  • phoia-tyou "Originating from (a place of ) joy," e.g. within one'sself, etc.


Example Sentences:

  • ía yalyían: "I am going home."
  • mú phya-kyíaf: "Were you able to finally understand?"
  • fwoia phoia-teyou-ña: "I see that s/he is becoming less joyful."


Additional Locatives

Some other locative particles inlude:

  • mor-, Inside of
  • wos- On the border, surface, edge, at the entrace, etc.
  • sdá- Outside of
  • -jíla Through
  • -de'thew Throughout
  • -mieqs "At a particular location
  • -míesq "At a particular set of circumstance, situation, or place-time"



Special Cases

Compound Locatives

This set of locatives express relative position rather direction. They are combined forms of 2 parts:


  1. Heads: fwía- "Above", jíoq- "Below", daea- "Level with", qhow- "In front of", qhaw- "Behind", doi- "Next to"'
  1. Codas: -da- "Located", -ha- "Touching, Connected or Attached", -sm- "Not touching or attached, disconnected, separate from"


The combined forms appear as prefixes:

fwíada- jíoqda- daeada- qhowda- qhawda- doida-
fwíaha- jíoqha- daeaha- qhowha- qhawha- doiha-
fwíasm- jíoqsm- daeasm- qhowsm- qhawsm- doism-


Examples: (sbaí "surface, table")

  • fwíada-sbaí - "(Somewhere) above the top the table"
  • fwíaha-sbaí - "On top of the table"
  • fwíasm-sbaí - "Above the table (not touching it)"



Genitives

The Genitives are the Particles that clarify the relationship between Roots. The structure used is Predicate - Genitive - Argument - where the Predicate is a Root, of which further information about it is given by the Argument , which is also a Root. The meaning would translate to "The X (Predicate) OF Y (Argument)". The Genitive, then, clarifies what type of OF is being referred to:


Primary Form Meaning
wa- Of (generic)
cor- Of (explicit) Agent ...
han- Associated with, Correlated with, Identified with
am- Portion, part of
ho- Attributed with, Filled with
mois- Composed of
wor- Functioning as, In the role of
than- (Of) Benificiary
t'ei- (Of) Benefactor


Examples: (skyi' "running", síah "deer", qhwol "writing, book", sío'gwoi "student", thinc "wall (freestanding)", píoñ "stone", ñama "food, meal" )

  • skyi' wa-síah - "Deer's running"
  • síah ho-skyi' - "Deer which is/are running"
  • qhwol hañnsío'gwoi - "A/the suden'ts book"
  • píoñ am-thinc - "Stone from a/the wall, Stone part of the wall"
  • thinc mois-píon - "Wall made of stone"
  • ñama thañ-xean - "Meal for me "
  • ñama t'ei-magyi - "Meal that you (2p) prepared (for someone)"
  • ñama than-xean t'eimagyi - "Meal that you prepare for me"


wa- / cor-

These Generic forms are often the basis for complete sentences:

  • fwoia skyi' wasíah: "I see deer running."
  • eia phoi wasíah: "(They say) the deer are happy."
  • mú sío'gwoi wamagyi: "Are you a student?"


Notice the distinction in meaning (as well as form) when using the non-Agency form of Generic Genetive as compared to the Agency form. This is the distinction that applies to Agency vs. Non-Agency across the board in the draga language:


(mía means "aid, facillitate, allow, give, etc.")

  • ía míac: "I help, etc. or, am helped, etc."
  • ía míac wasío'gwoi: "I help (a/the) student." or, "A/the student helps me" literally, "I experience aiding of student."
  • ía mía cor'sío'gwoi: "The student helps me." i.e. the student is the Agency of the aid


In case you might be wondering how to specify that it is "I" who helps the student, the best way to go would probabaly be: "ía mía thañsío'gwoi:"



Agency and the Senses

thañ- / t'ei-

wor-

This Particle means "(used) in the role of" or "as". However, its broad usage allows for a good deal of information to be expressed in a compact way:


  • ía thinc worhyeuc: "I use the wall as a seat."
  • eia píon worqhwol: "They say it's written on a stone.", literally, stone as book (i.e. any written media)
  • fwoia síah wornamaza: "I saw [them] making a meal of the deer.", i.e. deer as [referent's] meal



Genitives with Pronimals

Genitive and Locative transformation with dei

Examples:


Genitive

  • (pha-) ho-skyi' dei síah <== síah ho-skyi'
  • (pha-) wor-ñama dei síah <== síah wor-ñama
  • (pha-) han-sío'gwoi dei qhwol <== qhwol háñ -sío'gwoi


Locative

  • (pha-) yalyíañ dei sío'gwoi <== sío'gwoi (ho-) ya-lyíañ
  • (pha-) swor-kyíaf dei sío'gwoi <== sío'gwoi (ho-) swor-kyíaf
  • (pha) lyían-teyou dei xean <== xean (ho-) lyían-teyou


From these examples, you can also see that any complete Genitive or Locative construction may be treated as a Root in its own right - which can then also serve as either Predicate or Argument.


pha- + Particle

The Definite Particle pha- can be prefixed to of the above Particles to obtain a Root. You may have noticed that the Root forms of the Pronominals were formed this way (pha-yac, pha-xíán, pha-meí, pha-magyi, pha-yañ, pha-lor, pha-dae, pha-feas, pha-kwoi, pha-kwoiaf):

  • pha-sfíi
  • pha-tyigi
  • pha-fír
  • pha-qhwo
  • pha-yalo
  • pha-baó
  • pha-t'aó
  • pha-yaó
  • pha-tyíw
  • pha-sear
  • pha-tyou
  • pha-fir
  • pha-teyou
  • pha-mieqs
  • pha-míesq


  • pha-wos-kwae
  • pha-mor-kwae
  • pha-sdá-kwae
  • pha-jeuqda-kwae
  • pha-qhawsm-kwae

et cetera



Active Particles

There are several Particles which can be used to modify the meanings of Roots to make them refer to various manners of activity or action:

  • ïama- Approaching / arriving at a state
  • sama- Departure from a state
  • hi-, hieñ- Associated action or result
  • fía- Multiple manifestations grouped as a single instance; Done totally, completely, to the fullest extent
  • hío- Using


Examples:

  • ïamaskyi' Starting to run, Coming into a state of running, etc.
  • ïamapíoñ Turn into stone
  • ïamakyïaf Coming to understand, know, etc.
  • samphoi Becoming unhappy
  • samsío'gwoi Quitting being a student
  • hiqhwol Read a book; write a boot, etc.
  • hiskyi' Run, really running, etc.
  • hiñama Eat a meal; Prepare a meal
  • fíañama Banquet, huge meal; A group of meals; Meals (we had together, etc.)
  • fíakyïaf Completely, thoroughly understand
  • fía-hi-ñama Totally devour
  • hío-pha-chaeq Using this/ that cutting implement
  • ía híokyïaf: "I [do it by] using [my] understanding / knowledge."





Conjunctions

Root Level

hloi And; And / Or (Inclusive 'Or')
sloi Exclusive 'or'; Negative 'Or' ("nor")
xli Together with (inclusive emphasis)
xwoi Along with (exclusive emphasis)


  • fwoia síah hloi wúh: "I see deer and/or dogs. (wúh)"
  • fwoia síah sloi wúh: "I see either a deer or a dog."
  • es síah sloi wúh: "It's neither a deer nor a dog."
  • fwoia síah xli wúh: "I see a deer and dog together.
  • fwoia síah xwoi wúh: "I see a deer as well as a dog."


Phrasals: h' (hyá) and dañ

The phrasal Conjunctions hyá and dañ are extremely important in creating lengthier and more complex sentences in draga. They are used to join one phrase to another.

hyá has the meaning of "In addition, and also, etc." and continues to add information to the idea expressed in the previous phrase:

  • eia ca'wo yaxamlyíañ, hyá ïamasío'gwoi:
  • fwoia qhwol hansío'gwoidei thinctyíw, hyá worñama corsíah:
  • ía ïamapa'o, hyá ïamaca'wo, hyá ïamamadr, hyá ïamaphaex, hyá ïamaxoq, hyá ïamapa'o:



dañ has the meaning of "With regards to, about, concerning, etc.":

  • ía phoia dañ kyïafmagyi:
  • fwoia thaña t'eisío'gwui dañ qhwol hotheiaxoi:

Speech Act Particles

Any draqa sentence begins with a Speech Act Particle (SAP), often used in conjunction with a Qualifier. The SAPs fall into three types: Evidentials, Mood Indicators, and Speech Act Indicators. More than one SAP can also be used sometimes at the beginning of a sentence. A complete sentence often may consist of nothing but the Speech Act Particle:


Evidentials

hoia

1st Person Objective, i.e. "I experienced it (external perception)"

fwoia

1st Person Visual. i.e. "I witnessed it"

awo

1st Person Auditory, i.e. "It sounds to me like"

ía

1st Person Subjective, i.e. "I experienced it (internal perception)"

skyea-tae

1st Person Psionic i.e. "I know it from a dream, vision, intuition, etc."

ámiña

,i.e. "I heard from someone who said s/he experienced it"

ámiñ-tae

i.e. "I heard from someone who said s/he witnessed it"

(a') phx-a

,i.e. "I heard from someone unreliable who said s/he experienced it"

phx.a-tae

,i.e. "I heard from someone unreliable who said s/he witnessed it"



Mood Indicators

mpaha

Opiniative (Probable) Mood

sempa

Opiniative (Negative Probability) Mood

xweiña

Expectant Mood

qhwui-a

1st Person Imperative Mood

fo

Irrealis Mood

(a)skyea

Dreaming (Psionic) Mood


Speech Act Indicators

eia

Narrative Speech Act

a

Subjective (Non-Realis) Speech Act

xe'a

Interrogative Speech Act

mú

2nd Person Interrogative Speech Act

sei, es

Negative Statement or Negative Imperative Speech Act


Qualifiers

ido-

Indicates the Evidential source

añ-

Topicalizing Particle

m, -magyi

Phrase Level Conjunctions

dañ "About, Regarding, With respect to, Concerning..."
ou "And correspondingly / correlatedly / provoking..."
pái "Intentionally provoking..."
la.qs.a "Unintentionally provoking..."
z'ou "And of increasing correlation... "
dasi "In response to...", "Motivated by... "
dada "Intending (that)...", "In order to..."
he'ae "And surprisingly..."
chúmae "And unsurprisingly..."
kwmaskwa, msqa "And then / simultaneously / simulfactively..."
m.yamwa "Otherwise... "
saáñ "Rather / Instead / But not... "
ñáwa "However..."
ñúwi "Although / Despite..."
m.miema "Except... "
haf "In comparison to... "


Numbers

The draga number system is base-6. During the material height of the draga civilization, a base-30 system was devised and used for hundreds of years alongside the original base-6, and some vestiges can still be found, especially in the writing system and the calendar.

base-6 base-10 base-6 base-10
ifa 01 * pinky 1 íwa ñaxwae 24 16
aña 02 * add ring 2 amwa ñaxwae 25 17
dows 03 * add middle 3 doxwae 30 18
íwa 04 * add pointer 4 íxwae 40 24
amwa 05 * add thumb 5 maxwae 50 30
ihoa 10 * close fist 6 walo 1,00 36
hyawo 11 7 ifa walo 1,01 37
ofwo 12 8 ihoa walo 1,10 42
bií 13 9 walo aña 2,00 72
qhowei 14 10 walo dows 3,00 108
amwae 15 11 walo íwa 4,00 144
ñaxwae 20 12 walo amwa 5,00 180
ifa ñaxwae 21 13 walo ihoa 10,00 216
aña ñaxwae 22 14 wegwalo 1,00,00 1,296
dows ñaxwae 23 15 '


Although the numbers are essentially base 6, you will notice that the counting numbers run from 1-12 (1-20, base 6), and once the count has arrived past 36 (100 base 6) - it continues to use the 1 -12 count, and it uses groupings of 36's rather than 6's:

  • ifa walo (37), aña walo (38), dows walo (39), íwa walo (40), amwa walo (41), ihoa walo (42), ...
  • hyawo walo (43), ofwo walo (44), bií walo (45), qhowei walo (46), amwae walo (47), ñaxwae walo (48) ...
  • ifa ñaxwalo (=ñaxwae walo) (49) , ..., *amwamaxwalo (=amwamaxwae walo) (71) , walo aña (72)
  • note: mamaxwalo is generally preferred to amwamaxwalo


Numbers with Roots

Examples:

  • síaha-ifa One deer
  • sohoi-ifa ñaxwalo Forty-nine (36+12+1) students
  • qhowa-walo aña Seventy-rwo (2*36) books
  • phoia-bií Nine joys, joyous occasions, etc.



Ordinals

Ordinals are formed with a Locative construction, so that "first" is literally "at one", "fourth" is literally "at four", etc.:

  • síaha (ho-) yor-ifa - First deer
  • síaha (ho-) ifa-tyear - First deer
  • yor-ifa dei síaha - ' 'First deer
  • ifa-tyear dei síaha ' - ' First deer


Basic numeric sentences

  • fwoia bií dañ síaha: I see nine deer.
  • a walo wui: There are thirty-six."
  • ía íwa dañ phoia: I was pleased on (those) four occaions, I have four pleasures, etc.


ala is a Root meaning "iterations, repitions, counts, occurrences, times, etc":

  • eia f'ala dañ síaha: There was (exactly) one deer."
  • ía pha-ala íwa dañ phoia: I was pleased on those four occassions.




añ dañ phïacaxou-háñpapeloxoi ("The Tower of Babel")

a phawoi peí -

eia fe'alatew dañ pïokyíax hosacatío dirxeña-háñmesis:


eia cada xr'kyïeñewapaá, hei hyañdoafbaí hohamorxiñdarxoi, h' ïamaphalyíañña:


eia pïotyigi, baí - "qhwúi! a xígwo, hei híoxaeq dañ phawoi, hei híopíoñ jwae, hei lofoña war cwae":


eia pïotyigi, baí - "qhwúi! a pehwo, hei xígwo dañ phïacalyañ xwoi phïaca ho-úaloxou":

h'baí - "ïamahíesda-skwaer dañ xeñaweiaqs: h'xweiña, fo phawoisieñ ou yamargya-de'tew ïamaxpíw-wix":


eia fwíatyoi YaHWaHoxoi, dada ïamakyïafadae dañ xígwo-phahaña hañ phïacalyañ hya phïaca-xou:


eia pïo YaHWaHoxoi, baí- "qoei! a-woi dañ haña":

h'baí - "añfe'alatew fwoia dañ phakyïeñewa: h' añfe'alatew fwoia dañ hyírxñ:

fwoia añpehwo hokwihayom, ou phyáoqo sei jïiwa dañ híewaphajorgaña":

baí - "fo yorjeuqdeixíañ, hei phapïoña xqemi, dada kyïafasieñ hañpïotyigi":


eia woi YaHWaHoxoi, pái fíaxpíwña yamargya-de'tew,

he'eia sehaáñ xr'phïacalyañ hopapoloxoi-xñaq, dasi ie yormieqspa xqemi-YaHWaHoxui dirhyírxñ,

ou mieqspachou ïamafíaxpíw xr'hañapa dei yarmargya-de'tew:

Example.jpg



Links

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