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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| *'''Kala''' is meant to be a simple and euphonic personal conlang.
| | The Kala conlang... |
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| *Many lexical entries are inspired/influenced/borrowed by/from any number of natlangs | | * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] |
| | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| ==Pronunciation==
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[Wikipedia:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
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| ===Vowels===
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| !
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| !'''Front'''
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| !'''Central'''
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| !'''Back'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Close'''
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| |{{IPA|i~i:}} '''(i)''' || || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Mid'''
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| |{{IPA|e~e:}} '''(e)''' || || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Open'''
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| | || {{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)''' ||
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| |}
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| ====Diphthongs====
| | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
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| =====falling=====
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| *{{IPA|[aɪ~aɪ:]}} - '''ai'''
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| *{{IPA|[aʊ~aʊ:]}} - '''ao'''
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| =====rising=====
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| *{{IPA|[wa~wa:]}} - '''ua'''
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| *{{IPA|[waɪ~waɪ:]}} - '''uai'''
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| *{{IPA|[ja~ja:]}} - '''ya'''
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| *{{IPA|[jaʊ~jaʊ:]}} - '''yao'''
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| *{{IPA|[je~je:]}} - '''ye'''
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| *{{IPA|[jo~jo:]}} - '''yo'''
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| ===Consonants===
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| {| class="IPA wikitable"
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| ! rowspan="2"|
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| ! rowspan="2"|Labial
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| ! colspan="2"|Dental
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| ! rowspan="2"|Palatal
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| ! colspan="2"|Velar
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| ! rowspan="2"|Glottal
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| |-align=center
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| !<small>central</small>
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| !<small>lateral</small>
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| !<small>plain</small>
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| !<small>labial</small>
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| |-align=center
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| ! Nasal
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| | {{IPA|m}} '''(m)''' [[File:Naua ma.png]]
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| | {{IPA|n}} '''(n)''' [[File:Naua na.png]]
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| | {{IPA|ɲ}} '''(ny)''' [[File:Naua nya.png]]
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| |-align=center
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| !Plosive
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| | {{IPA|p~b}} '''(p)''' [[File:Naua pa.png]]
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| | {{IPA|t~d}} '''(t)''' [[File:Naua ta.png]]
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| | {{IPA|k~g}} '''(k)''' [[File:Naua ka.png]]
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| | {{IPA|kʷ~gʷ}} '''(ku)''' [[File:Naua kua.png]]
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| | {{IPA|ʔ}} '''(')'''
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| |-align=center
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| !Fricative
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| | {{IPA|s}} '''(s)''' [[File:Naua sa2.png]]
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| | {{IPA|ʃ}} '''(s)''' [[File:Naua sa2.png]]
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| | {{IPA|h~ɦ}} '''(h)''' [[File:Naua ha.png]]
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| |-align=center
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| !Affricate
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| | {{IPA|ts}} '''(ts)''' [[File:Naua tsa.png]]
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| | {{IPA|tɬ}} '''(tl)''' [[File:Naua tla.png]]
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| | {{IPA|tʃ}} '''(ts)''' [[File:Naua tsa.png]]
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| |-align=center
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| ! Approximant
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| | {{IPA|l~r}} '''(l)''' [[File:Naua la.png]]
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| | {{IPA|j}} '''(y)''' [[File:Naua ya.png]]
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| | {{IPA|w}} '''(u)''' [[File:Naua ua.png]]
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| |}
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| ==== Syllable Structure ====
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| * (N)(C)V
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| * N = prenasal /n/ or /m/
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| * The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/.
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| */k/ only occurs as a final coda to negate verbs and nouns.
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| ====Prenasalized consonants====
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| * In Kala, almost every consonant can be [[Wikipedia:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalized]], but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,
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| :while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases of [[Wikipedia:Syllabic_consonant|syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.
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| * '''mb''' /mp~mb/
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| :Example: '''mpaka''' /ˈmpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary / border / line
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| * '''nt''' /nt~nd/
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| :Example: '''ntama''' /ˈnta.ma/ - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
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| * '''nk''' /ŋk~ŋɡ/
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| :Example: '''nkapa''' /ˈŋka.pa/ - ''n'' - alcohol / grog
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| ==Writing System==
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| ''See'': [[Kala writing|Moya]]
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| ==Grammatical Principles==
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| * The grammar of [[Kala]] should be regarded as a guide indicating how grammatical distinctions of gender, number, tense/aspect, noun, verb and particles are made. I have adopted the Arab grammarian's division into three categories (1) Noun ['''no / ata'''] [[File:Naua no.png]] / [[File:Naua ata.png]], (2) Particle ['''peya'''] [[File:Naua peya.png]], (3) Verb ['''uati'''] [[File:Naua uati.png]]. [[Kala]] does not always follow European models. It discards all redundancies. In English we say “two boys came yesterday”; in [[Kala]] “two boy come yesterday” ['''ta’o tahi yomaye tala'''] it is clear that more than one boy is already indicated by ‘two,’ while ‘yesterday’ shows the time, or tense of the verb.
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| == Sentences ==
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| * Most sentences in [[Kala]] contain a verb phrase, typically denoting the occurrence of an action. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers.
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| * Most sentences also contain at least one noun phrase, typically denoting a person or thing. A noun phrase consists of a noun plus any modifiers.
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| * The two most important noun phrases are the subject and the object. Their exact meaning depends on the choice of verb, but
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| :loosely speaking, the subject is the person or thing that carries out the action, and the object is the person or thing that is directly affected by the action.
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| === Word Order ===
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| * Basic word order is '''SOV''' and is invariable.
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| -
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| * ''(subject) - (object) - (verb)''
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| :'''tlaka (ke) naka anya'''
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| :<tt>man (TOP) woman see</tt>
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| : The man sees the woman.
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| * ''(subject) - (verb)''
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| :'''nahi apuaye'''
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| :<tt>girl sing.PAST</tt>
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| : The girl sang. / The girl did sing.
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| * ''(subject) - (complement) - (verb)''
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| :'''ina manka a'''
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| :<tt>food cold COP</tt>
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| : The food is cold.
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| * ''(subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)''
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| :'''naka tsa'e kama yalaye'''
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| :<tt>woman through village walk.PAST</tt>
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| : The woman walked through the village.
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| * ''(subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (object) - (verb)''
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| :'''na'eta itla omena yeta'''
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| :<tt>1s.ACC.2s this apple give</tt>
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| : I give to you this apple.
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| ::(''In this case, the prepositional phrase is replaced by the pronominal construction.'')
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| * ''(subject) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)''
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| :'''ta kima poto tayo tse'ek'''
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| :<tt>2s like photo 2s.POSS appear.NEG</tt>
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| : You do not look like your photo.
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| ====Clauses====
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| *In addition to phrases, some sentences contain clauses, which resemble smaller sentences nested within the larger sentence.
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| :They can modify noun phrases, verb phrases, or the whole of the larger sentence.
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| -
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| * ''(subject) - (clause) - (prepositional phrase) - (verb)''
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| :'''tlaka ke asaye hina ka'e nuyoku yalaye'''
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| :<tt>man CONJ live.PAST here to New York go.PAST</tt>
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| : The man who lived here went to New York.
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| * ''(subject) - (clause) - (verb)''
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| :'''na ke ha aya a omu'''
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| :<tt>1s CONJ 3s beautiful COP think</tt>
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| : I think that she is beautiful.
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| ==Nouns==
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| * Nouns include [[Wikipedia:Pronoun|pronouns]], [[Wikipedia:Adjective|adjectives]] (nouns of quality), and [[Wikipedia:Determiner_(linguistics)|determiners]].
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| === Affect / Degree ===
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| * The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''.
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| These are respectively realized as '''-ki''' and '''-ka''' when attached to a word that has a final syllable containing '''h''' or '''y'''.
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| :Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
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| :Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion
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| * These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
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| :Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
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| * In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
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| :Example : '''tahaka''' - bigger/biggest | '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' - His house is bigger than mine.
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| :Example : '''yanaha''' - more yellow/most yellow | '''ke huam tayo yanaha''' - Your flowers are the most yellow.
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| ===Gender===
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| *In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings '''-ta''' and '''-na'''.
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| :Example : '''nikata''' "a male dog", '''nikana''' "a female dog".
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| === Articles ===
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| *There is only one article in '''Kala''', '''ke'''. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
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| *It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
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| :Example : '''kama''' "village", '''ke kama''' "the/a village", '''ke kama'a''' "the villages"
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| :Example : '''inahi''' "snack", '''ke inahi''' "the/a snack", '''ke inahim''' "the snacks"
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| ===Number===
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| * Nouns are either singular, plural or collective.
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| * Concrete nouns are pluralized by suffixing '''-m'''.
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| :Examples : '''kono''' - stone > '''konom''' - stones | '''naka''' - woman > '''nakam''' - women
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| * When the last syllable of a word contains an '''m''', the plural is marked by reduplicating the final vowel.
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| :Examples : '''kama''' - village > '''kama'a''' - villages | '''teyemi''' - phrase > '''teyemi'i''' - phrases
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| * Collective (plural) nouns are marked by prefixing '''tli-'''.
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| :Examples : '''tsaka''' - house > '''tlitsaka''' - neighborhood | '''yama''' - mountain > '''tliyama''' - mountain range
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| * Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
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| :Example : '''sahi''' - color > '''sahim''' - colors > '''sahi ya'o''' - five color(s)
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| * Adjectives do not show plural agreement. However, when an adjective is used nominally, it can be pluralized.
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| :Example : '''nyeli''' - pink > '''nyelim''' - (the) pink (ones)
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| ===Pronouns===
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| * [[Kala]] generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
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| There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
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| {| class="wikitable" border=1
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| |-
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| ! !! ''Nominative'' !! ''Accusative'' !! ''Possessive'' !! ''Reflexive'' !! ''Reciprocal''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1S''
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| || na || ena || nayo || na'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2S''
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| || ta || eta ||tayo || ta'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3S''
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| || ha || eha || hayo || ha'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''4S''
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| || tla || etla || tlayo || tla'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1P''
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| || nam || enam || namyo || nami || nanku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1P'' (EXCL)
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| || na'am || ena'am || na'amyo || na'ami || na'anku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2P''
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| || tam || etam || tamyo || tami || tanku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3P''
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| || kam || ekam || kamyo || kami || kanku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''4P''
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| || tlam || etlam || tlamyo || tlami || tlanku
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| |-
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| |}
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| * A chart of the agent-patient transitivity constructions;
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| {| class="wikitable" border=1
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| |+ '''A-P''' ''construction''
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| ! !! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing'' !! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
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| || '''-''' || na'eta || na'eha || '''-''' || na'etam || na'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
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| || ta'ena || '''-''' || ta'eha || ta'enam || '''-''' || ta'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
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| || ha'ena || ha'eta || '''-''' || ha'enam || ha'etam || ha'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
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| || '''-''' || nameta || nameha || '''-''' || nametam || namekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
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| || tamena || '''-''' || tameha || tamenam || '''-''' || tamekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
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| || kamena || kameta || kameha || kamenam || kametam || '''-'''
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| |-
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| |}
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| ==== Correlative Pronouns ====
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| {| class="wikitable" border=1
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| |-
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| ! !! ''query'' !! ''this'' !! ''that'' !! ''some'' !! ''none'' !! ''any'' !! ''every'' !! ''whichever''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''adjective''
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| || ka || itla || uatla || iha || ak || ula || kua || ote
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''person''
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| || ko...ka || iko || uako || ihako || hok || kola || kohua || oteko
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''thing''
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| || no...ka || itla || uatla || ihano || nok || nola || nokua || oteno
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''time''
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| || ama/tsima...ka || ima || uama || ihama || amak || amala || kuama || otema
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''place''
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| || mo...ka || hina || uana || ihamo || mok || mola || mokua || otemo
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''way''
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| || to...ka || yoto || uato || ihato || tok || tola || tokua || oheto
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''amount''
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| || ku/o...ka || iku || uaku || ihaku || huk/ok || kula || hukua/okua || oteku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''reason''
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| || nye...ka || inye || uanye || ihanye || nyek || ulanye || nyekua || otenye
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''kind''
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| || su...ka || isu || uasu || ihasu || suk || sula || sukua || otesu
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| |-
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| |}
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| ==Verbs==
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| ===tense / aspect===
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| The future tense is marked with the suffix '''-tli'''. Past tenses, including perfect and
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| pluperfect, are marked with the suffix '''-ye'''. The present tense is unmarked:
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| * '''na ina''' - <tt>1.S eat</tt> - I eat / I am eating.
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| * '''na inatli''' - <tt>1.S eat.FUT</tt> - I will eat / I am about to eat.
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| * '''na inaye''' - <tt>1.S eat.PAST</tt> - I eat / I was eating / I have eaten / I had eaten.
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| [[Kala]] does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. ‘I ate’, ‘I used to eat’, ‘I
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| have eaten’, ‘I had eaten’). However, one can easily clarify the temporal sequence of two actions by
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| marking the earlier one with the adverbial '''tsa''' (‘already’).
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| ===mood===
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| * The conditional mood is formed with the particle '''iya'''.
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| * '''iya na ina''' - <tt>COND 1.S eat</tt> - I might be eating.
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| * The imperative mood is formed with the particle '''kya'''.
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| * '''kya ina''' - <tt>IMP eat</tt> - Eat!
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| * The negative mood is formed with the suffix '''-k'''.
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| * '''na inak''' - <tt>1.S eat.NEG</tt> - I do not eat / I am not eating.
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| * The volitive mood is formed with the suffix '''-ue''' (from '''ueha''' - to want, desire).
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| * '''na inaue''' - <tt>1.S eat.VOL</tt> - I want to eat.
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| * The necessitative mood is formed with the suffix '''-he''' (from '''heya''' - to need, require).
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| * '''na inahe''' - <tt>1.S eat.NEC</tt> - I need to eat.
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| * The abilitative mood is formed with the suffix '''-pa''' (from '''pala''' - to be able).
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| * '''na inapa''' - <tt>1.S eat.ABIL</tt> - I am able to eat./ I can eat.
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| ===voice===
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| * The passive voice is formed by attaching the accusative prefix '''e-''' to the pronoun.
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| * '''ena ina''' - <tt>ACC.1.S eat</tt> - I am eaten. / I am being eaten.
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| ==Particles==
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| ===Prepositions===
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| ===Conjunctions===
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| ==Questions==
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| * There are three kinds of question: those that can be answered with a simple "yes" or "no", those that present a range of options to choose from, and those that ask for a particular piece of information.
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| *Additionally, questions can be direct ("Where are we going?") or indirect ("I asked you where we are going", "I don't know who I am").
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| ===Yes/No questions===
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| * A sentence can be turned into a yes/no question by adding '''a'''? ("yes?") or '''ak'''? ("no?") just before the interrogative particle '''ka'''.
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| :
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| :
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| * Do you speak German?
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| :'''ta alemanyatla kala ka'''
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| :<tt>2S Germany.Language speak INT.PART</tt>
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| * Did you eat?
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| :'''ta inaye ka'''
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| :<tt>2S eat.PAST INT.PART</tt>
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| * We're lost, aren't we?
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| :'''nam kayo ak ka'''
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| :<tt>1P lost COP.NEG INT.PART</tt>
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| * Does she understand?
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| :'''ha unya ka'''
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| :<tt>3S understand INT.PART</tt>
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| ====Indirect====
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| * I want to know whether the food has arrived.
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| :'''na iya ke ina talaye unyaue'''
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| :<tt>1S COND.PART TOP.PART food come.PAST know.VOL</tt>
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| * She asked if I could help.
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| :'''ha iya ke na yotapa kanyoye'''
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| :<tt>3S COND.PART TOP.PART 1S help.ABIL ask.PAST</tt>
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| * The answer to a yes/no question is '''a''' ("yes") or '''ak''' ("no"), '''a''' states that the possibility expressed in the question is true; '''ak''' states that it is false:
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| * '''ta nkapaue ka''' - <tt>2S alcohol.VOL INT.PART</tt> – Do you want (a) beer?
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| :* '''tsepa a''' - <tt>please yes</tt> – Yes, please. (I do want beer)
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| :* '''nyasak''' - <tt>thank you.NEG</tt> – No, thanks. (I don't want beer)
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| ===Alternative questions===
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| * An alternative question simply asks the listener to pick one of a number of options, usually expressed as a list joined with the conjunction '''ua''':
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| * '''ta tsa'i ua kaua ua nkapa ueha ka''' - <tt>2S tea or coffee or beer want INT.PART</tt> – Do you want tea, coffee, or beer?
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| :* '''tsepa kaua''' - <tt>please coffee</tt> – Coffee, please.
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| * '''ta nya tsiti ua uelo ua yala talaye ka''' - <tt>2S tea or coffee or beer want INT.PART</tt> - Did you come by car, or by bicycle, or did you walk?
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| ===Other questions===
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| * Other questions use interrogative determiners or pronouns such as '''ote''', '''ko''', '''ke''', '''ama''', '''ku''', '''to''', '''mo''', and '''nye'''. The interrogative word appears at the beginning of the sentence:
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| * '''ote mosa ke ta yomu ka''' - <tt>which book TOP.PART 2S read INT.PART</tt> - Which book are you reading?
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| * '''ko moyako ke ta tsopo ka''' - <tt>person write.AG TOP.PART 2S prefer INT.PART</tt> - Who is your preferred author?
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| * '''ke itla maka kapi ka''' - <tt>TOP.PART this music ugly INT.PART</tt> - What is this ugly music?
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| * '''ke ta muya ka''' - <tt>TOP.PART 2S do INT.PART</tt> - What are you doing?
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| * '''ama ta moku ka''' - <tt>time 2S sleep INT.PART</tt> - When do you sleep?
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| * '''ku ta inatli ka''' - <tt>amount 2S eat.FUT INT.PART</tt> - How much will you eat?
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| * '''to ta yalaye ka''' - <tt>way 2S walk.PAST INT.PART</tt> - How did you walk?
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| * '''mo nam a ka''' - <tt>place 1P COP INT.PART</tt> - Where are we?
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| * '''nye ta empa ka''' - <tt>reason 2S run INT.PART</tt> - Why are you running?
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| ===Clauses===
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| ==Numbers==
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| ===Cardinal Numbers===
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| *'''e'o''' - zero / nothing
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| *'''na'o''' - one
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| *'''ta'o''' - two
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| *'''ha'o''' - three
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| *'''ma'o''' - four
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| *'''ya'o''' - five
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| *'''tsa'o''' - six
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| *'''ka'o''' - seven
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| *'''pa'o''' - eight
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| *'''sa'o''' - nine
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| *'''ue'o''' - ten
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| *'''nye'o''' - (one) hundred
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| *'''tle'o''' - (one) thousand
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| *'''mue'o''' - ten thousand
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| *'''kye'o''' - (one) hundred thousand
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| *'''nte'o''' - (one) million
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| === Higher Numbers ===
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| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
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| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
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| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
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| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') | '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
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| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
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| ===Ordinal Numbers===
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| * '''ki'''- - ordinal prefix
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| :Example : '''kisa'o''' - ninth (in a sequence)
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| :Example : '''kiyanyepa'o''' - 508<sup>th</sup>
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| ===Fractions===
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| * '''i'''- - fractional prefix
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| :Example : '''isa'o''' - a ninth, 1/9
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| :Example : '''iha'o te pa'o''' - three eighths, 3/8 [lit: a third of eight]
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| ==Word formation==
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| ==Punctuation==
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| ''See'': [[Kala_writing#punctuation|Moya]]
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| == Index ==
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| {{Kala index}}
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| [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Kala]] | |
