Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo: Difference between revisions
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{|style="background:#f9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3 | {|style="background:#f9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3 | ||
|- style="text-align: center;" | |- style="text-align: center;" | ||
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|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Total speakers: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| | |style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Total speakers: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| | ||
|- | |- | ||
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Writing system: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| | |style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Writing system: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| none (the speakers are illiterate; this article uses a transliteration using the Latin alphabet) | ||
|- | |- | ||
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Genealogy: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| | |style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Genealogy: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| | ||
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|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphology: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Agglutinative | |style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphology: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Agglutinative | ||
|- | |- | ||
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphosyntax: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| | |style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphosyntax: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Ergative | ||
|- | |- | ||
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Word order: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| SOV | |style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Word order: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| SOV | ||
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</div> | </div> | ||
<sup>1</sup>The exact quality of the rhotic is unknown. | <sup>1</sup>The exact quality of the rhotic is unknown. | ||
There are long/geminated versions of the consonants | |||
There are long/geminated versions of the consonants /n, p, t, k, s, r/ ({{IPA|/rː/}} is phonetically {{IPA|[lː]}}) that are very common. The consonants /m, {{IPA|pʰ}}, {{IPA|tʰ}}, {{IPA|kʰ}}, f, {{IPA|ʃ}}, ts/ may also be long/geminated, but they are very rare. Geminated /ts/ has two contrastive realizations: /tsts/ and {{IPA|/tːs/}}. | |||
<div style="text-align: center;"> | <div style="text-align: center;"> | ||
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== Phonological constraints == | == Phonological constraints == | ||
The syllable structure of Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo is (O)V(C) where O is any consonant but {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, C is any consonant other than {/z, {{IPA|ʒ}}, h, ts, {{IPA|tʃ}}/}, and V is any single vowel or diphthong. /j/ and /w/ do not count as consonants, but as a part of a diphthong. | The syllable structure of Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo is (O)V(C) where O is any consonant but {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, C is any consonant other than {/z, {{IPA|ʒ}}, h, ts, {{IPA|tʃ}}/}, and V is any single vowel or diphthong. /j/ and /w/ do not count as consonants, but as a part of a diphthong. | ||
The geminated or long consonant can only appear intervocalically | |||
The geminated or long consonant can only appear intervocalically and it is bisyllabic. That is, the onset of the consonant belongs to the same syllable as the preceding vowel, while the release of the consonant belongs to the same syllable as the vowel following it. | |||
== Morphological processes == | == Morphological processes == | ||
*When a suffix that begins with a long consonant | *When a suffix that begins with a long consonant, a voiced plosive, or /z/ is added to a word that ends with a consonant, the initial consonant of the suffix becomes a short unvoiced consonant. For this reason, in the lists of suffixes in this article, the first consonant letter representing a long consonant is put in parenthesis (e.g. ''-(t)to''). The voicing change is not indicated, however. | ||
*When two aspirated consonants are adjacent, or when a plain | *When two aspirated consonants are adjacent, or when a plain plosive is followed by its aspirated version, those two turn into a long aspirated plosive. | ||
*When a suffix changes the last vowel of a word, diphthongs count as one vowel. So for example the singular first person pronoun ''pot'ya'' with the ergative suffix -ak' is ''pot'ak<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' and not *pot'yak'. An exception is if the dipthong begins with /j/ or /w/ | *When a suffix changes the last vowel of a word, diphthongs count as one vowel. So for example the singular first person pronoun ''pot'ya'' with the ergative suffix ''-ak<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' is ''pot'ak<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' and not *pot'yak'. An exception is if the dipthong begins with /j/ or /w/ which is preceded by a vowel. In that case the /j/ or /w/ is retained. | ||
=== Vowel harmony === | === Vowel harmony === | ||
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has front-back vowel harmony. In the list below | Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has front-back vowel harmony. In the list below front vowels have been marked with <span style="color:Blue">blue</span> and back vowels with <span style="color:Red">red</span>. There are also neutral vowels, which are: {{IPA|/u, uː, ju, juː, wuː/}} <u, ū, yu, yū, wū>. Each suffix is by default front or back (unless it is neutral), and if the suffix is attached to a word of the opposite affinity, the vowels in the suffix will change according to this list. (Note that not all vowels make matching pairs; for example the opposite of /ue/ is /wo/, but the opposite of /wo/ is {{IPA|/wø/}}). | ||
*<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|ɑ}}</span> → <span style="color:Blue">e</span> | *<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/ɑ/}} <nowiki><a></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">/e/ <nowiki><e></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">e</span> → <span style="color:Red">{{IPA|ɑ}}</span> | *<span style="color:Blue">/e/ <nowiki><e></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/ɑ/}} <nowiki><a></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">i</span> → u | *<span style="color:Blue">/i/ <nowiki><i></nowiki></span> → /u/ <nowiki><u></nowiki> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">o</span> → <span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|ø}}</span> | *<span style="color:Red">/o/ <nowiki><o></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|/ø/}} <nowiki><ö></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|oː}}</span> → <span style="color:Blue">wy</span> | *<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/oː/}} <nowiki><ō></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">/wy/ <nowiki><wü></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|ø}}</span> → <span style="color:Red">o</span> | *<span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|/ø/}} <nowiki><ö></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Red">/o/ <nowiki><o></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">y</span> → u | *<span style="color:Blue">/y/ <nowiki><ü></nowiki></span> → /u/ <nowiki><u></nowiki> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|ɑi}}</span> → <span style="color:Blue">i</span> | *<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/ɑi/}} <nowiki><ai></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">/i/ <nowiki><i></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|ɑu}}</span> → <span style="color:Blue">i</span> | *<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/ɑu/}} <nowiki><au></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">/i/ <nowiki><i></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">ue</span> → <span style="color:Red">wo</span> | *<span style="color:Blue">/ue/ <nowiki><ue></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Red">/wo/ <nowiki><wo></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|jɑ}}</span> → <span style="color:Blue">je</span> | *<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/jɑ/}} <nowiki><ya></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">/je/ <nowiki><ye></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">je</span> → <span style="color:Red">{{IPA|jɑ}}</span> | *<span style="color:Blue">/je/ <nowiki><ye></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/jɑ/}} <nowiki><ya></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">jo</span> → <span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|jø}}</span> | *<span style="color:Red">/jo/ <nowiki><yo></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|/jø/}} <nowiki><yö></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|joː}}</span> → <span style="color:Blue">jy</span> | *<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/joː/}} <nowiki><yō></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">/jy/ <nowiki><yü></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|wɑ}}</span> → <span style="color:Blue">we</span> | *<span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/wɑ/}} <nowiki><wa></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">/we/ <nowiki><we></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">we</span> → <span style="color:Red">{{IPA|wɑ}}</span> | *<span style="color:Blue">/we/ <nowiki><we></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/wɑ/}} <nowiki><wa></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">wi</span> → {{IPA|wuː}} | *<span style="color:Blue">/wi/ <nowiki><wi></nowiki></span> → {{IPA|/wuː/}} <nowiki><wū></nowiki> | ||
*<span style="color:Red">wo</span> → <span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|wø}}</span> | *<span style="color:Red">/wo/ <nowiki><wo></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|/wø/}} <nowiki><wö></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|wø}}</span> → <span style="color:Red">wo</span> | *<span style="color:Blue">{{IPA|/wø/}} <nowiki><wö></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Red">/wo/ <nowiki><wo></nowiki></span> | ||
*<span style="color:Blue">wy</span> → <span style="color:Red">{{IPA|oː}}</span> | *<span style="color:Blue">/wy/ <nowiki><wü></nowiki></span> → <span style="color:Red">{{IPA|/oː/}} <nowiki><ō></nowiki></span> | ||
The red and blue marking is used consistently throughout this article, so that suffixes that go with back vowel words are marked with red and suffixes that go with front vowel words are marked with blue. Whenever there are two versions of a suffix, the one that is presented first is used with neutral words. | |||
= Writing = | |||
The speakers of Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo had no writing system. The language is transliterated in this article with the Latin alphabet, as shown below. | |||
<span style="text-align: center;">'''A a, B b, Ch ch, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, K' k', L l, M m, N n, Ng ng, O o, Ō ō, Ö ö, P p, P' p', R r, S s, Sh sh, T t, T' t', Ts ts, U u, Ū ū, Ü ü, W w, Y y, Z z, Zh zh'''</span> | |||
< | |||
{| class="aligntop" style="width:80%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: top;" | {| class="aligntop" style="width:80%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: top;" | ||
! style="width: 20%; font-size: small;" | Letter | ! style="width: 20%; font-size: small;" | Letter | ||
! style="width: 20%; font-size: small;" | Pronunciation | ! style="width: 20%; font-size: small; text-align: left;" | Pronunciation | ||
|- | |- | ||
! A a | ! A a | ||
| class="IPA" | ɑ | | class="IPA" | ɑ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! B b | ! B b | ||
| class="IPA" | b | | class="IPA" | b | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ch ch | ! Ch ch | ||
| class="IPA" | tʃ | | class="IPA" | tʃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! D d | ! D d | ||
| class="IPA" | d | | class="IPA" | d | ||
|- | |- | ||
! E e | ! E e | ||
| class="IPA" | e | | class="IPA" | e | ||
|- | |- | ||
! F f | ! F f | ||
| class="IPA" | f | | class="IPA" | f | ||
|- | |- | ||
! G g | ! G g | ||
| class="IPA" | ɡ | | class="IPA" | ɡ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! H h | ! H h | ||
| class="IPA" | h | | class="IPA" | h | ||
|- | |- | ||
! I i | ! I i | ||
| class="IPA" | i | | class="IPA" | i | ||
|- | |- | ||
! J j | ! J j | ||
| class="IPA" | dʒ | | class="IPA" | dʒ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! K k | ! K k | ||
| class="IPA" | k | | class="IPA" | k | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! K' k' | ||
| class="IPA" | kʰ | | class="IPA" | kʰ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! L l | ! L l | ||
| class="IPA" | l | | class="IPA" | l | ||
|- | |- | ||
! M m | ! M m | ||
| class="IPA" | m | | class="IPA" | m | ||
|- | |- | ||
! N n | ! N n | ||
| class="IPA" | n | | class="IPA" | n | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ng ng | ! Ng ng | ||
| class="IPA" | ŋ | | class="IPA" | ŋ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! O o | ! O o | ||
| class="IPA" | o | | class="IPA" | o | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ō ō | ! Ō ō | ||
| class="IPA" | oː | | class="IPA" | oː | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ö ö | ! Ö ö | ||
| class="IPA" | ø | | class="IPA" | ø | ||
|- | |- | ||
! P p | ! P p | ||
| class="IPA" | p | | class="IPA" | p | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! P' p' | ||
| class="IPA" | pʰ | | class="IPA" | pʰ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! R r | ! R r | ||
| class="IPA" | *r | | class="IPA" | *r | ||
|- | |- | ||
! S s | ! S s | ||
| class="IPA" | s | | class="IPA" | s | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Sh sh | ! Sh sh | ||
| class="IPA" | ʃ | | class="IPA" | ʃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! T t | ! T t | ||
| class="IPA" | t | | class="IPA" | t | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! T' t' | ||
| class="IPA" | tʰ | | class="IPA" | tʰ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ts ts | ! Ts ts | ||
| class="IPA" | ts | | class="IPA" | ts | ||
|- | |- | ||
! U u | ! U u | ||
| class="IPA" | u | | class="IPA" | u | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ū ū | ! Ū ū | ||
| class="IPA" | uː | | class="IPA" | uː | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ü ü | ! Ü ü | ||
| class="IPA" | y | | class="IPA" | y | ||
|- | |- | ||
! W w | ! W w | ||
| class="IPA" | w | | class="IPA" | w | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Y y | ! Y y | ||
| class="IPA" | j | | class="IPA" | j | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Z z | ! Z z | ||
| class="IPA" | z | | class="IPA" | z | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Zh zh | ! Zh zh | ||
| class="IPA" | ʒ | | class="IPA" | ʒ | ||
|} | |} | ||
The voiced plosives and the lateral are represented in the romanization, even though they are not phonemic | The voiced plosives and the lateral are represented in the romanization, even though they are not phonemic. | ||
= | Long or geminated consonant are represented by doubling the consonant letter or digraph (so for example {{IPA|/kː/}} is <nowiki><kk></nowiki> and {{IPA|/ʃː/}} is <nowiki><shsh></nowiki>). But the apostrophe of the aspirated consonants is not duplicated (so for example {{IPA|/kʰː/}} is <nowiki><kk'></nowiki>). | ||
= Grammar = | |||
== Morphology == | == Morphology == | ||
=== Verbs === | === Verbs === | ||
Verbs in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo can be divided into several different groups. There are intransitive verbs that take one argument, a subject, and transitive verbs which take two arguments, subject and object. Intransitive verbs come in two varieties, A-intransitives which take an agent-like subject, and P-intransitives which take a patient-like subject. | |||
There are stative and dynamic verbs. Dynamic verbs describe actions that typically are momentane or that involve movement of some kind, e.g. ''p'wacha'' (receive), ''tōtk'yu'' (fly). Stative verbs describe motionless actions or the state of something, for example ''opk'ūja'' (sit), ''mūzōng'' (be hungry). Adjectives may be zero-derived into verbs. These adjective-verbs are always stative. | |||
===== Voice ===== | There are also auxiliary verbs that carry some kind of grammatical meaning, and which are used together with other verbs. | ||
==== Finite verbs ==== | |||
===== Voice and transitivity ===== | |||
In the following table, the affixes marked with <span style="color:Blue">blue</span> go together with front vowel words, and the ones in <span style="color:Red">red</span> with back vowel words. If a word has only neutral vowels, the affix that stands first in the morphology column will be used. | In the following table, the affixes marked with <span style="color:Blue">blue</span> go together with front vowel words, and the ones in <span style="color:Red">red</span> with back vowel words. If a word has only neutral vowels, the affix that stands first in the morphology column will be used. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| Line 296: | Line 267: | ||
! Example | ! Example | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Active || -∅ || rowspan="2" | pot'ak' ubōtta p'yowochyang - I eat an apple <br> pot'ak' tallūda kweding - I hear a song | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Transitive || -∅ | ||
|- | |||
| Intransitive || -<span style="color:Red">(t)to</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(t)tö</span> || pot'a p'yowochyattong - I eat <br> pot'a kwedittöng - I hear | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive || k'ūdi VERB-ttūk<sup>1</sup> || ubōtta pot'yat k'ūdi p'yowottūk - an apple becomes eaten by me <br> tallūda k'ūdi kwettūk - a song becomes heard | | Passive || k'ūdi VERB-ttūk<sup>1</sup> || ubōtta pot'yat k'ūdi p'yowottūk - an apple becomes eaten by me <br> tallūda k'ūdi kwettūk - a song becomes heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Causative || -<span style="color:Blue">k'ye</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Red">k'ya</span><sup>1</sup> || pot'ak' myatto | | Causative || -<span style="color:Blue">k'ye</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Red">k'ya</span><sup>1</sup> || pot'ak' myatto kwek'yeng - I make him hear <br> pot'ak' myatto ubōtta p'yowok'yang - I make him eat an apple | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive-Causative || k'ūdi VERB-<span style="color:Blue">ttūkk'ye</span><sup>1</sup> <br> k'ūdi VERB-<span style="color:Red">ttūkk'ya</span><sup>1</sup> || | | Passive-Causative || k'ūdi VERB-<span style="color:Blue">ttūkk'ye</span><sup>1</sup> <br> k'ūdi VERB-<span style="color:Red">ttūkk'ya</span><sup>1</sup> || myadak' k'ūding kwettūkk'ye - he is made to hear <br> pot'ak' ubōtta k'ūding p'yowottūkk'ya - I am made to eat an apple | ||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>The last syllable of the verb is deleted before this suffix is added. | <sup>1</sup>The last syllable of the verb is deleted before this suffix is added. | ||
The passive voice has similar uses as in English. It shifts focus from the agent to the patient, and it is often used for indicating that someone did something to the patient without asking for consent, or even outright against the patient's will, or that the patient succumbed to a situation that was not brought on by any sentient being. Another use for the passive is for turning a transitive verb into an intransitive while demoting the agent. For example ''negefa'' is an inherently transitive verb which means "break". Using the passive voice is the only way to make it an intransitive verb with the meaning that something gets broken, because using | Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has explicit marking of intransitive verbs, while transitive verbs are unmarked. The intransitive marker is deleted if any voice other than active is used on the given verb. See the sections [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Transitives|Transitives]] and [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Intransitives|Intransitives]] for more details. | ||
The causative voice is used for marking that someone makes, lets or somehow causes someone else to do something. It can also be used for turning an agent-less verb into one that takes an agent as its argument. For example the word '' | |||
The passive-causative is | The passive voice has similar uses as in English. It shifts focus from the agent to the patient, and it is often used for indicating that someone did something to the patient without asking for consent, or even outright against the patient's will, or that the patient succumbed to a situation that was not brought on by any sentient being. Another use for the passive is for turning a transitive verb into an intransitive while demoting the agent. For example ''negefa'' is an inherently transitive verb which means "break". Using the passive voice is the only way to make it an intransitive verb with the meaning that something gets broken, because using intransitive marking would have the meaning that someone breaks something (without telling what that "something" is). | ||
The causative voice is used for marking that someone makes, lets or somehow causes someone else to do something. It can also be used for turning an agent-less intransitive verb into one that takes an agent as its argument. For example the word ''satwatto'' means burn, as in "the wood is burning". To express that someone burns something, the causative voice would be used. This verb can be used either intransitively, i.e. without a patient, or transitively (see [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Causatives|Causatives]] for more information). | |||
The passive-causative voice marks that someone is forcibly subjected to an action. The causer is dropped or demoted, while the causee (and possible patient) remain. See [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Passive-causatives|Passive-causatives]] for more information. | |||
===== Tense and aspect ===== | ===== Tense and aspect ===== | ||
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has arguably | Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has arguably three basic tenses (past, present and habitual); while the other tenses (remote past, future, remote future) and the three aspects (progressive, perfect and frequentative) are expressed periphrastically, through reduplication or through a combination of conjugation, periphrastic means and reduplication. | ||
Stative verbs can not take the habitual tense, or perfect or progressive aspects. | |||
Stative verbs can not take the habitual tense, or perfect or progressive aspects. | |||
The following table displays allowed combinations of tenses and aspects. The AI marks the place for the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Voice|active intransitive]] suffix, C for the causative suffix, and the M for [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Mood|mood]] suffixes, if there are any. In constructions involving auxiliary verbs, the place of the main verb is marked with VERB. The main verb will have the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Infinitives|active infinitive]] form. | |||
Combining the passive voice with these verb forms is a bit complicated, so see [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo conjugation tables]] for how it is expressed together with any tense or aspect. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Tense | ! Tense | ||
| Line 322: | Line 303: | ||
! Example | ! Example | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Past || - || - | | Remote Past || - || -AI/C-<span style="color:Red">oXo</span><sup>1</sup>-M <br> -AI/C-<span style="color:Blue">öXö</span><sup>1</sup>-M || kallololo - dug a long time ago <br> kwedödö - heard a long time ago | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Past || - || - | | Past || - || -AI/C-<span style="color:Red">o</span>-M <br> -AI/C-<span style="color:Blue">ö</span>-M || kallolo - dug <br> kwedö - heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Present || - || - | | Present || - || -AI/C-ng-M || kallorwang - digs <br> kweding - hears | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Future || - || k'ūdi- | | Future || - || k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C || k'ūdi kallorwa - will dig <br> k'ūdi kwedi - will hear | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Future || - || k'ūdik'ūdi- | | Remote Future || - || k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C || k'ūdik'ūdi kallorwa - will dig in the far future <br> k'ūdik'ūdi kwedi - will hear in the far future | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Habitual || - || - | | Habitual || - || -AI/C-∅-M || kallorwa - usually digs <br> kwedi - usually hears | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Past || Progressive || ut- | | Remote Past || Progressive || ut-AI-oXo<sup>1</sup>-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">beppi</span><sup>2</sup> <br> ut-AI-oXo<sup>1</sup>-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">bappu</span><sup>2</sup> || udodo kwebeppi - was hearing a long time ago <br> udodo kallobappu - was digging a long time ago | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Past || Progressive || ut- | | Past || Progressive || ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">beppi</span><sup>2</sup> <br> ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">bappu</span><sup>2</sup> || udo kwebeppi - was hearing <br> udo kallobappu - was digging | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Present || Progressive || ut- | | Present || Progressive || ut-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">beppi</span><sup>2</sup> <br> ut-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">bappu</span><sup>2</sup> || ut kwebeppi - is hearing <br> ut kallobappu - is digging | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Future || Progressive || k'ūdi- | | Future || Progressive || k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">beppi</span><sup>2</sup> <br> k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">bappu</span><sup>2</sup> || k'ūdi kwebeppi - will be hearing <br> k'ūdi kallobappu - will be digging | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Future || Progressive || k'ūdik'ūdi- | | Remote Future || Progressive || k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">beppi</span><sup>2</sup> <br> k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">bappu</span><sup>2</sup> || k'ūdik'ūdi kwebeppi - will be hearing in the far future <br> k'ūdik'ūdi kallobappu - will be digging in the far future | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Past || Perfect || ut- | | Remote Past || Perfect || ut-AI-oXo<sup>1</sup>-M VERB-C-ttūk<sup>2</sup> || udodo kallottūk - had dug a long time ago <br> udodo kwettūk - had heard long ago | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Past || Perfect || ut- | | Past || Perfect || ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-ttūk<sup>2</sup> || udo kallottūk - had dug <br> udo kwettūk - had heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Present || Perfect || ut- | | Present || Perfect || ut-AI-(o)ng-M VERB-C-ttūk<sup>2</sup> || udong kallottūk - have dug <br> udong kwettūk - have heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Future || Perfect || k'ūdi- | | Future || Perfect || k'ūdi-AI-ng-M VERB-C-ttūk<sup>2</sup> || k'ūding kallottūk - will have dug <br> k'ūding kwettūk - will have heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Future || Perfect || k'ūdik'ūdi- | | Remote Future || Perfect || k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-ng-M VERB-C-ttūk<sup>2</sup> || k'ūdik'ūding kallottūk - will have dug in the far future <br> k'ūdik'ūding kwettūk - will have heard in the far future | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Habitual || Perfect || ut- | | Habitual || Perfect || ut-AI-M VERB-C-ttūk<sup>2</sup> || ut kallottūk - have/had usually dug <br> ut kwettūk - have/had usually heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Past || Frequentative || - | | Remote Past || Frequentative || -AI/C-<span style="color:Blue">dödö</span>-M <br> -AI/C-<span style="color:Red">dodo</span>-M || kwedidödö - repeatedly heard things long ago <br> kallorwadodo - dug around long ago | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Past || Frequentative || - | | Past || Frequentative || -AI/C-<span style="color:Blue">dö</span>-M <br> -AI/C-<span style="color:Red">do</span>-M || kwedidö - repeatedly heard things <br> kallorwado - dug around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Present || Frequentative || - | | Present || Frequentative || -AI/C-<span style="color:Blue">ding</span>-M <br> -AI/C-<span style="color:Red">dung</span>-M || kwediding - repeatedly hear things <br> kallorwadung - dig around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Future || Frequentative || k'ūdi- | | Future || Frequentative || k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">di</span> <br> k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">du</span> || k'ūdi kwedidi - will hear things repeatedly <br> k'ūdi kallorwadu - will dig around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Future || Frequentative || k'ūdik'ūdi- | | Remote Future || Frequentative || k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">di</span> <br> k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">du</span> || k'ūdik'ūdi kwedidi - will hear things repeatedly in the far future <br> k'ūdik'ūdi kallorwadu - will dig around in the far future | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Habitual || Frequentative || - | | Habitual || Frequentative || -AI/C-<span style="color:Blue">di</span>-M <br> -AI/C-<span style="color:Red">du</span>-M || kwedidi - usually hears things repeatedly <br> kallorwadu - usually digs around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Past || Progressive-Frequentative || ut- | | Remote Past || Progressive-Frequentative || ut-AI-oXo<sup>1</sup>-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dibeppi</span> <br> ut-AI-oXo<sup>1</sup>-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">dubappu</span> || udodo kwedidibeppi - was repeatedly hearing things long ago <br> udodo kallorwadubappu - was digging around long ago | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Past || Progressive-Frequentative || ut- | | Past || Progressive-Frequentative || ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dibeppi</span> <br> ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">dubappu</span> || udo kwedidibeppi - was repeatedly hearing things <br> udo kallorwadubappu - was digging around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Present || Progressive-Frequentative || ut- | | Present || Progressive-Frequentative || ut-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dibeppi</span> <br> ut-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">dubappu</span> || ut kwedidibeppi - is repeatedly hearing things <br> ut kallorwadubappu - is digging around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Future || Progressive-Frequentative || k'ūdi- | | Future || Progressive-Frequentative || k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dibeppi</span> <br> k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">dubappu</span> || k'ūdi kwedidibeppi - will be hearing things repeatedly <br> k'ūdi kallorwadubappu - will be digging around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Future || Progressive-Frequentative || k'ūdik'ūdi- | | Remote Future || Progressive-Frequentative || k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dibeppi</span> <br> k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">dubappu</span> || k'ūdik'ūdi kwedidibeppi - will be hearing things repeatedly in the future <br> k'ūdik'ūdi kallorwadubappu - will be digging around in the far future | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Past || Perfect-Frequentative || ut- | | Remote Past || Perfect-Frequentative || ut-AI-oXo<sup>1</sup>-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dittūk</span> <br> ut-AI-oXo<sup>1</sup>-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">duttūk</span> || udodo kwedidittūk - has heard things repeatedly long ago <br> udodo kallorwaduttūk - has dug around long ago | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Past || Perfect-Frequentative || ut- | | Past || Perfect-Frequentative || ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dittūk</span> <br> ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">duttūk</span> || udo kwedidittūk - has heard things repeatedly <br> udo kallorwaduttūk - has dug around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Present || Perfect-Frequentative || ut- | | Present || Perfect-Frequentative || ut-AI-(o)ng-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dittūk</span> <br> ut-AI-(o)ng-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">duttūk</span> || udong kwedidittūk - have heard things repeatedly <br> udong kallorwaduttūk - have dug around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Future || Perfect-Frequentative || k'ūdi- | | Future || Perfect-Frequentative || k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dittūk</span> <br> k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">duttūk</span> || k'ūdi kwedidittūk - will have heard things repeatedly <br> k'ūdi kallorwaduttūk - will have dug around | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Remote Future || Perfect-Frequentative || k'ūdik'ūdi- | | Remote Future || Perfect-Frequentative || k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dittūk</span> <br> k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">duttūk</span> || k'ūdik'ūdi kwedidittūk - will have heard things repeatedly in the far future <br> k'ūdik'ūdi kallorwaduttūk - will have dug around in the far future | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Habitual || Perfect-Frequentative || ut- | | Habitual || Perfect-Frequentative || ut-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Blue">dittūk</span> <br> ut-AI-M VERB-C-<span style="color:Red">duttūk</span> || ut kwedidittūk - have/had usually heard things repeatedly <br> ut kallorwaduttūk - have/had usually dug around | ||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>The | <sup>1</sup>The X stands for a consonant that is the same as the previous consonant in the word.<br> | ||
<sup>2</sup>The previous syllable is deleted before this suffix is added, unless the previous syllable | <sup>2</sup>The previous syllable is deleted before this suffix is added, unless the previous syllable is the causative suffix. | ||
The habitual, which is used for expressing that someone does something on regular basis, | |||
The frequentative can have the meaning of just doing something repeatedly, or doing something repeatedly and in several locations. For example ''myosyak' | The habitual, which is used for expressing that someone does something on regular basis, cannot be used together with any tense. It is usually understood to mean present tense, but if need be, one can specify past meaning with the adverb ''öttöt'' (before), and future meaning with the adverb ''allogau'' (intends to). | ||
The frequentative can have the meaning of just doing something repeatedly, or doing something repeatedly and in several locations. For example ''myosyak'yattodung'' can either mean "to jump around", or "to jump up and down at the same spot". | |||
===== Mood ===== | ===== Mood ===== | ||
| Line 400: | Line 383: | ||
! Morphology | ! Morphology | ||
! Examples | ! Examples | ||
|- | |||
| Energetic || -<span style="color:Red">(s)sa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(s)se</span> || kallorwangsa - ''does'' dig ''too''! <br> kwedingse - ''does'' hear ''too''! | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Conditional || -<span style="color:Red">(o)ppo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(ö)ppö</span> || kallorwappo - would dig <br> kwedippö - would hear | | Conditional || -<span style="color:Red">(o)ppo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(ö)ppö</span> || kallorwappo - would dig <br> kwedippö - would hear | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Energetic || -<span style="color:Red">( | | Conditional-Energetic || -<span style="color:Red">(o)ppossa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(ö)ppösse</span> || kallorwappossa - I wish someone would dig <br> kwedippösse - I wish someone would hear | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Hortative || -<span style="color:Red">wat</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wet</span> || kallorwat - let's dig <br> kwetwet - let's hear | | Hortative || -<span style="color:Red">wat</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wet</span> || kallorwat - let's dig <br> kwetwet - let's hear | ||
|- | |||
| Hortative-Energetic || -<span style="color:Red">watsa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wetse</span> || kallorwatsa - let's dig! <br> kwetwetse - let's hear! | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Imperative || deletion of last syllable || kallo - dig! <br> kwe - hear! | | Imperative || deletion of last syllable || kallo - dig! <br> kwe - hear! | ||
|- | |||
| Imperative-Energetic || deletion of last syllable + <span style="color:Red">(s)sa</span> <br> deletion of last syllable + <span style="color:Blue">(s)se</span> || kallossa - you dig, allright? <br> kwesse - would you hear? | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Optative || -<span style="color:Red">gaut</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">git</span> || kallorwagaut - may he/she dig <br> kwedigit - may he/she hear | | Optative || -<span style="color:Red">gaut</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">git</span> || kallorwagaut - may he/she dig <br> kwedigit - may he/she hear | ||
|- | |||
| Optative-Energetic || -<span style="color:Red">gautsa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">gitse</span> || kallorwagautsa - may he/she dig! <br> kwedigitse - may he/she hear! | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Volitive || -<span style="color:Red">auk</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ik</span> || kallolauk - let him/her dig then <br> kwedik - let it be heard then | | Volitive || -<span style="color:Red">auk</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ik</span> || kallolauk - let him/her dig then <br> kwedik - let it be heard then | ||
|} | |} | ||
The conditional is used for marking the "then" part of an "if...then" statement. But sometimes it is used on both the "if" and the "then" part simultaneously. The conditional can only be used together with the | The energetic mood is used when expressing what oneself actually believes to be the case, despite of what anyone else thinks. It can be used together with any tense and aspect. The energetic mood combines with all other moods except volitive to form additional meanings. | ||
The energetic | |||
The hortative denotes the meaning of "let's". No tense | The conditional is used for marking the "then" part of an "if...then" statement. But sometimes it is used on both the "if" and the "then" part simultaneously. The conditional can only be used together with the past and habitual tense. Any aspect together with past tense can be used however. | ||
The imperative mood is used for making commands. It is not used together with any particular | |||
The combination of the conditional and energetic moods has two different uses. One means that one wishes current things to be in a certain way instead of how they are now. The other use means that one wishes for something to happen; either wishing it very intently, or being hopeful or optimistic about it happening. This mood can be used with the same tenses and aspects as the simple conditional. | |||
The hortative denotes the meaning of "let's". No tense or aspect, except for the frequentative, can be used with the hortative. It can be used with any voice, except for the passive-causative. | |||
Combining the hortative mood with the energetic adds a persuasive tone to the proposal made. It can be used together with the same tenses and aspects as the simple hortative. | |||
The imperative mood is used for making commands. It is combined with the active or passive voice. It does not distinguish transitives and intransitives, with neither kind of verb getting any transitivity marking. The imperative mood is also not used together with any particular tense or aspect, except that it can be used with the frequentative. The adressee, which is optional, can be put in the beginning or end of the sentence in the vocative case. See [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Imperative_sentences|Imperative sentences]] for more information on how to use the imperative mood. | |||
Using the combination of imperative and energetic is paradoxically more polite than using the imperative alone. In this case, the energetic mood makes the statement more of a suggestion than a command. The same rules apply for the imperative-energetic as for the simple energetic regarding which other verb categories it can be combined with. | |||
The optative can be used for expressing a wish in one of these cases: | The optative can be used for expressing a wish in one of these cases: | ||
# The wish is not up to any person to make come true, for example "may it not rain tomorrow". | # The wish is not up to any person to make come true, for example "may it not rain tomorrow". | ||
# The wish is directed at someone who is not present and contactable at the time being, for example "may the king not raise the taxes again" said by someone who has never met, and probably never will meet, the king. | # The wish is directed at someone who is not present and contactable at the time being, for example "may the king not raise the taxes again" said by someone who has never met, and probably never will meet, the king. | ||
# The wish is dependent on a large group of people, like ''the society'' or ''mankind''. As an example: "let's all work together to make the world a better place to live". | # The wish is dependent on a large group of people, like ''the society'' or ''mankind''. As an example: "let's all work together to make the world a better place to live". | ||
The optative can only be used together with the present | The optative can only be used together with the present and habitual tenses. Any aspect together with present tense is also allowed. | ||
Together with the optative, the energetic has simply a more intensifying meaning. This can be used with the same tenses and aspects as the simple optative. | Together with the optative, the energetic has simply a more intensifying meaning. This can be used with the same tenses and aspects as the simple optative. | ||
==== | The volitive mood has two similar uses. One is used to express that one does not approve of, or like, the state of affairs, but reluctantly accepts it because nothing else can be done. The other use expresses that one does not really wish for something to happen, but lets it happen anyway because one cannot be bothered to do something about it. This mood can only be used together with the present simple, present progressive, present frequentative and habitual tenses. | ||
==== Nonfinite verbs ==== | |||
===== Infinitives ===== | ===== Infinitives ===== | ||
In [http://wals.info/feature/description/62 action nominal constructions], when the active form of any of the infinitives is used, any agent argument of that infinitive takes the genitive case and any patient argument gets either the genitive or the absolutive case (except for the deverbal noun where both arguments always get the genitive). With the passive forms of an infinitive, the patient gets the genitive case and the agent ablative case (including the deverbal noun). | |||
In other kinds of constructions, the object of an infinitive gets absolutive case. For the simple infinitives, the object is placed before the finite verb. The deverbal nouns have other requirements though, see [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Deverbal nouns|Deverbal nouns]] for the details. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Type of infinitive | ! Type of infinitive | ||
| Line 443: | Line 438: | ||
! Example | ! Example | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Simple | | Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Simple infinitives|Infinitive]] || -∅ || p'yowochya - to eat <br> kwedi - to hear | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Simple | | Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Simple infinitives|Infinitive]] || k'ūdi VERB-<span style="color:Red">ūk'p'o</span> <br> k'ūdi VERB-<span style="color:Blue">ūk'p'ö</span> || k'ūdi p'yowochūk'p'o - to become eaten <br> k'ūdi kwedūk'p'ö - to become heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Inessive | | Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Inessive infinitives|Inessive infinitive]] || -<span style="color:Blue">öppi</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">oppu</span> || kwedöppi - when hearing <br> p'yowochoppu - when eating | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Inessive | | Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Inessive infinitives|Inessive infinitive]] || -<span style="color:Red">ūk'p'o</span> k'ūdöppi <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ūk'p'ö</span> k'ūdöppi || p'yowochūk'p'o k'ūdöppi - when becoming eaten <br> kwedūk'p'ö k'ūdöppi - when becoming heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Instructive | | Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Instructive infinitives|Instructive infinitive]] || -<span style="color:Red">ōt</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wüt</span> || p'yowochōt - by eating <br> kwetwüt - by hearing | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Instructive | | Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Instructive infinitives|Instructive infinitive]] || -<span style="color:Red">ūk'p'o</span> k'ūtwüt <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ūk'p'ö</span> k'ūtwüt || p'yowochūk'p'o k'ūtwüt - by becoming eaten <br> kwedūk'p'ö k'ūtwüt - by becoming heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Adverb | | Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Adverb infinitives|Adverb infinitive]] || -<span style="color:Red">ba</span><sup>1</sup>-C<sup>2</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">be</span><sup>1</sup>-C<sup>2</sup> || p'yowobappu - in the middle of eating <br> kwebeppi - in the middle of hearing | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Adverb | | Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Adverb infinitives|Adverb infinitive]] || -<span style="color:Red">būk'p'o</span><sup>1</sup> k'ūbe-C<sup>2</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">būk'p'ö</span><sup>1</sup> k'ūbe-C<sup>2</sup> || p'yowobūk'p'o k'ūbeppi - in the middle of getting eaten <br> kwebūk'p'ö k'ūbeppi - in the middle of getting heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Deverbal | | Active [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Deverbal nouns|Deverbal noun]] || -<span style="color:Red">bossan</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">bössen</span><sup>1</sup> || p'yowobossan - eating <br> kwebössen - hearing | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Deverbal | | Passive [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Deverbal nouns|Deverbal noun]] || -<span style="color:Red">ūk'p'o</span> k'ūbössen <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ūk'p'ö</span> k'ūbössen || p'yowochūk'p'o k'ūbössen - getting eaten <br> kwedūk'p'ö k'ūbössen - getting heard | ||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>The last syllable from the verb stem is deleted before this suffix is added. | <sup>1</sup>The last syllable from the verb stem is deleted before this suffix is added.<br> | ||
<sup>2</sup>The C marks the place for an obligatory case suffix (see [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Adverb infinitives|Adverb infinitives]]). | |||
====== Simple | ====== Simple infinitives ====== | ||
The simple infinitive is used as an oblique of another verb. For example: | The simple infinitive is used as an oblique of another verb. For example: | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | k'yamk'ottōtk'-a || align="left" | madūkka-∅-ng || align="left" | t'yamchya-∅ | ! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | k'yamk'ottōtk'-a || align="left" | madūkka-∅-ng || align="left" | t'yamchya-∅ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | shooting.star- | | align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | shooting.star-ABS || align="left" | want-ACT.TR-PRES || align="left" | see-INF | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''I want to see a shooting star.'' | | colspan="4" | ''I want to see a shooting star.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====== Inessive | ====== Inessive infinitives ====== | ||
The inessive infinitive has the meaning of "when someone is doing something"; it is used as a time reference. | The inessive infinitive has the meaning of "when someone is doing something"; it is used as a time reference. | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Pot'ya-t || align="left" | pōkp'ya-ppu || align="left" | küllöd-öppi || align="left" | p'adab-a || align="left" | | ! align="left" | Pot'ya-t || align="left" | pōkp'ya-ppu || align="left" | küllöd-öppi || align="left" | p'adab-a || align="left" | swe-nnet || align="left" | opkōya-tt-o | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 1SG-GEN || align="left" | forest-INE || align="left" | walk-ACT.INE.INF || align="left" | lightning- | | align="left" | 1SG-GEN || align="left" | forest-INE || align="left" | walk-ACT.INE.INF || align="left" | lightning-ABS || align="left" | tree-ILL || align="left" | strike-INTR-PAST | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="6" | ''When I was walking in the forest, lightning struck a tree.'' | | colspan="6" | ''When I was walking in the forest, lightning struck a tree.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====== Instructive | ====== Instructive infinitives ====== | ||
The instructive infinitive describes in what manner something happens. For example: | The instructive infinitive describes in what manner something happens. For example: | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Myod-a || align="left" | pingketti-dö || align="left" | p' | ! align="left" | Myod-a || align="left" | pingketti-dö || align="left" | p'utsūk'-ōt || align="left" | pöttü-tt-ö | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 3SG- | | align="left" | 3SG-ABS || align="left" | market-ALL || align="left" | row-INSTR.INF || align="left" | go-INTR-PAST | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''He went to the market by rowing.'' | | colspan="4" | ''He went to the market by rowing.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====== Adverb | ====== Adverb infinitives ====== | ||
The adverb infinitive requires a case (marked with C in the table). It has different meanings depending on the case used. The | The adverb infinitive requires a case (marked with C in the table). It has different meanings depending on the case used. Without a following case suffix, the suffix ''-ba/be'' makes a [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Participles|passive agent participle]]. The table below shows all cases that can be combined with the adverb infinitive. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Case | ! Case | ||
| Line 515: | Line 511: | ||
! align="left" | Pot'-a || align="left" | opk'ū-ba-tk'a || align="left" | p'ōnoppu-ba-nnat || align="left" | pöttü-tt-ö | ! align="left" | Pot'-a || align="left" | opk'ū-ba-tk'a || align="left" | p'ōnoppu-ba-nnat || align="left" | pöttü-tt-ö | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 1SG- | | align="left" | 1SG-ABS || align="left" | sit-ADV.INF-EXE || align="left" | stand-ADV.INF-TRANSL || align="left" | go-INTR-PAST | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''I went from sitting to standing.'' | | colspan="4" | ''I went from sitting to standing.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
The difference between the inessive infinitive and the inessive adverb infinitive is that the inessive infinitive can be used for comparing two situations in time: "when doing X, Y happened"; while the inessive adverb infinitive | The difference between the inessive infinitive and the inessive adverb infinitive is that the inessive infinitive can be used for comparing two situations in time: "when doing X, Y happened"; while the inessive adverb infinitive cannot be used that way. A single verb in the inessive adverb infinitive form can be used as an answer to the question where someone is. For example: | ||
-Peppü op'a | |||
-Kadappappu. (Out fishing.) | ''-Peppü op'a udittöng?'' (Where is dad?)<br> | ||
The inessive adverb infinitive | ''-Kadappappu.'' (Out fishing.) | ||
The inessive adverb infinitive together with the auxiliary ''ut'' makes the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Tense_and_aspect|progressive aspect]]. | |||
====== Deverbal | ====== Deverbal nouns ====== | ||
This form derives the name of the act of doing something. The difference between deverbal nouns and the simple infinitives is that the simple infinitives are used as objects while deverbal nouns are used as subjects. Deverbal nouns function just like normal nouns and can therefore take any case, or even the plural suffix when referring to several instances of some act. | This form derives the name of the act of doing something. The difference between deverbal nouns and the simple infinitives is that the simple infinitives are used as objects while deverbal nouns are used as subjects. Deverbal nouns function just like normal nouns and can therefore take any case, or even the plural suffix when referring to several instances of some act. If the deverbal noun has an object argument, it gets the genitive case. So for example "the eating of food" would be ''nūjugat p'yowobossan''. | ||
===== Participles ===== | ===== Participles ===== | ||
| Line 533: | Line 531: | ||
! Example | ! Example | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Active | | Active past participle || -ttūk<sup>1</sup> || p'yowottūk sutsoga - boy who has eaten <br> kwettūk k'wik'wö - girl who has heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive | | Passive past participle || -<span style="color:Red">k'p'o</span> k'ūttūk <br> -<span style="color:Blue">k'p'ö</span> k'ūttūk || p'yowochyak'p'o k'ūttūk nūjuga - food that is eaten <br> kwedik'p'ö k'ūttūk hūjungū - gossip that is heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Active | | Active present participle || -<span style="color:Red">lla</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">lle</span><sup>1</sup> || p'yowolla sutsoga - boy who is eating <br> kwelle k'wik'wö - girl who is hearing | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive | | Passive present participle || -<span style="color:Red">k'p'o</span> k'ūlle <br> -<span style="color:Blue">k'p'ö</span> k'ūlle || p'yowochyak'p'o k'ūlle nūjuga - food that is being eaten <br> kwedik'p'ö k'ūlle hūjungū - gossip that is being heard | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Active | | Active agent participle || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Passive | | Passive agent participle || -<span style="color:Red">ba</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">be</span><sup>1</sup> || sutsogat p'yowoba nūjuga - food eaten by the boy <br> k'wik'wöt kwebe hūjungū - gossip heard by the girl | ||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>The last syllable from the verb stem is deleted before this suffix is added. | <sup>1</sup>The last syllable from the verb stem is deleted before this suffix is added. | ||
When a verb is used for describing a noun the way adjectives are used, the verb takes a participle form. There are only two tenses, past and present. There are active participles, describing an agent, and passive participles, describing a patient. Causative voice can also be used. In that case, the causative suffix is added before the participle suffix as follows: | When a verb is used for describing a noun the way adjectives are used, the verb takes a participle form. There are only two tenses, past and present. There are active participles, describing an agent, and passive participles, describing a patient. Causative voice can also be used. In that case, the causative suffix is added before the participle suffix as follows: | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | K'yapya || align="left" | ōppok'yob-ak' || align="left" | t'ūgū-k'ye-lle || align="left" | ud-∅-ong | ! align="left" | K'yapya || align="left" | ōppok'yob-ak' || align="left" | t'ūgū-k'ye-lle || align="left" | ud-∅-ong | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | this || align="left" | show-ERG || align="left" | sleep-CAUS-ACT.PRES.PTC || align="left" | | | align="left" | this || align="left" | show-ERG || align="left" | sleep-CAUS-ACT.PRES.PTC || align="left" | be-TR-PRES | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''This show is sleep-inducing.'' | | colspan="4" | ''This show is sleep-inducing.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
The active past participle and the active present participle can take an object, and the passive present participle and the passive agent participle can take a subject, all of which are marked with the genitive case. For the passive agent participle the agent argument is obligatory. The subject or object is placed right before the participle. | |||
The agent participle is similar to the passive past participle, but the difference is that the past passive participle | |||
The noun following a participle can have any case. If a core case is used, which one is used is governed by the finite verb's voice. The participle itself can be used as the object of the copula, as in the above example sentence. The copula will | The agent participle is similar to the passive past participle, but the difference is that the past passive participle does not take a subject. If a noun (or pronoun) with genitive case is placed before the passive past participle, it means that the object described by the participle belongs to the person or thing marked by the genitive case. While for the agent participle, the genitive marks who the action has been done by. | ||
The noun following a participle can have any case. If a core case is used, which one is used is governed by the finite verb's voice. The participle itself can be used as the object of the copula, as in the above example sentence. The copula will be marked as an active voice transitive and the subject will be marked as ergative, but no absolutive case will be present. | |||
=== Nouns === | === Nouns === | ||
==== Number ==== | ==== Number ==== | ||
The singular form of nouns is unmarked, while the plural is marked with the suffix -k. If the noun ends with a consonant, a vowel | The singular form of nouns is unmarked, while the plural is marked with the suffix ''-k''. If the noun ends with a consonant, a vowel is inserted before the ''-k'' suffix. Usually the vowel will be ''<span style="color:Red">ō</span>'' or ''<span style="color:Blue">wü</span>'' depending on vowel harmony, but there are many irregular plurals that will use ''<span style="color:Red">o</span>'', ''<span style="color:Blue">ö</span>'' or ''wū'' as the linking vowel instead. In [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#San words|san words]], final ''-<span style="color:Red">san</span>'' becomes ''-<span style="color:Red">sōk</span>'' and ''-<span style="color:Blue">sen</span>'' becomes ''-<span style="color:Blue">swük</span>''. | ||
==== Case ==== | ==== Case ==== | ||
The final ''-n'' is deleted from [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#San words|san words]] before the case suffix is added. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Case | ! Case | ||
| Line 572: | Line 574: | ||
| Ergative || -<span style="color:Red">ak'</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ek'</span> || kutsongak' - dog-ERG <br> keppek' - cat-ERG | | Ergative || -<span style="color:Red">ak'</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ek'</span> || kutsongak' - dog-ERG <br> keppek' - cat-ERG | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Absolutive || -<span style="color:Red">a</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">e</span> || kutsonga - dog-NA <br> keppe - cat-NA | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Adpositional cases|Adpositional cases]] | ! colspan="3" | [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Adpositional cases|Adpositional cases]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Distributive || -<span style="color:Blue">k'illet</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">k'ullat</span> || | | Distributive || -<span style="color:Blue">k'illet</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">k'ullat</span> || keppik'illet - each cat separately <br> syazolyak'ullat - every day | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Distributive-Temporal || -<span style="color:Red">oppot</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öppöt</span> || | | Distributive-Temporal || -<span style="color:Red">oppot</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öppöt</span> || syazoloppot - at daytime <br> sigissöppöt - during frost | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Essive || -<span style="color:Red">tta</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">tte</span> || kutsongatta - as a dog <br> keppitte - as a cat | | Essive || -<span style="color:Red">tta</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">tte</span> || kutsongatta - as a dog <br> keppitte - as a cat | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Genitive || -t || kutsongat - dog's <br> keppit - cat's | | Genitive || -t<sup>1</sup> || kutsongat - dog's <br> keppit - cat's | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Instrumental || -<span style="color:Red">ōp'</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wüp'</span> || | | Instrumental || -<span style="color:Red">ōp'</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wüp'</span> || rappangōp' - with a hammer <br> köswüp' - with a stick | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Prolative || -<span style="color:Red">kp'ō</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kp'wü</span> || pōngokp'ō - by sea <br> kikkukp'wü - by rooftop | | Prolative || -<span style="color:Red">kp'ō</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kp'wü</span> || pōngokp'ō - by sea <br> kikkukp'wü - by rooftop | ||
| Line 590: | Line 592: | ||
! colspan="3" | [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Locational cases|Locational cases]] | ! colspan="3" | [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Locational cases|Locational cases]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Ablative || -<span style="color:Red">(ō)t'k'ya</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(wü)t'k'ye</span> || | | Ablative || -<span style="color:Red">(ō)t'k'ya</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(wü)t'k'ye</span> || pōngot'k'ya - from the sea <br> kikkut'k'ye - from the roof | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Elative || -<span style="color:Red">pk'a</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">pk'e</span> || kutsongapk'a - from the inside of the dog <br> | | Elative || -<span style="color:Red">pk'a</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">pk'e</span> || kutsongapk'a - from the inside of the dog <br> kikkupk'e - from inside the rooftop | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Exessive || -<span style="color:Red">tk'a</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">tk'e</span> || kutsongatk'a - (turn) from a dog (into something else) <br> keppitk'e - (turn) from a cat (into something else) | | Exessive || -<span style="color:Red">tk'a</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">tk'e</span> || kutsongatk'a - (turn) from a dog (into something else) <br> keppitk'e - (turn) from a cat (into something else) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Adessive || -<span style="color:Blue">di</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">du</span> || | | Adessive || -<span style="color:Blue">di</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">du</span> || kikkudi - on the roof <br> pōngodu - by the sea | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Inessive || -<span style="color:Blue">ppi</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">ppu</span> || | | Inessive || -<span style="color:Blue">ppi</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">ppu</span> || kikkuppi - in the roof <br> pōngoppu - in the sea | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Allative || -<span style="color:Blue">dö</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">do</span> || | | Allative || -<span style="color:Blue">dö</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">do</span> || kikkudö - to the roof <br> pōngodo - to the sea | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Illative || -<span style="color:Red">(nn)at</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(nn)et</span> || pōngonnat - into the sea <br> kikkunnet - into the roof | | Illative || -<span style="color:Red">(nn)at</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(nn)et</span> || pōngonnat - into the sea <br> kikkunnet - into the roof | ||
| Line 610: | Line 612: | ||
! colspan="3" | [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Other case|Other]] | ! colspan="3" | [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Other case|Other]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Abessive || -<span style="color:Blue">kki</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">kku</span> || | | Abessive || -<span style="color:Blue">kki</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">kku</span> || kössekki - without a stick <br> rappangakku - without a hammer | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Vocative || -∅ || kutsonga - hey you dog! <br> keppi - hey you cat! | | Vocative || -∅ || kutsonga - hey you dog! <br> keppi - hey you cat! | ||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>After the plural suffix the genitive suffix is -<span style="color:Red">ōt</span> or -<span style="color:Blue">wüt</span>. (All other word final consonants are simply replaced by -t.) | |||
===== Adpositional cases ===== | ===== Adpositional cases ===== | ||
If the distributive case is used together with a word that stands for some kind of time period, it has the meaning that something is done during each of those periods. If used with any other kind of noun, it has the meaning of each of those separately. For example the sentence ''k'yapya k' | If the distributive case is used together with a word that stands for some kind of time period, it has the meaning that something is done during each of those periods. If used with any other kind of noun, it has the meaning of each of those separately. For example the sentence ''k'yapya k'yowo k'ōm sangok'ullat'' means "do this assignment in pairs", where the word for pair (''sango'') carries the distributive case. The distributive case can not be used with pronouns. | ||
The distributive-temporal case is only used together with words relating to time. It has the meaning that something is done during that time, but unlike the simple distributive case it doesn't necessarily mean that it is done during ''every'' such time period. | |||
The essive case has the meaning of | The distributive-temporal case is only used together with words relating to time. It has the meaning that something is done during that time, but unlike the simple distributive case it doesn't necessarily mean that it is done during ''every'' such time period. | ||
The genitive case is used for marking possession (with the | |||
The prolative tells "by which medium or route". For example ''rōtta hugokp'ō kūt'kōnang'' - the boat travels by river. | The essive case has the meaning of "as" or "if". For example ''kyot'pyatta syazolyatta sidöding'' - during a cold day one freezes (or "if there is a cold day one freezes"), or ''nogapwatta ōno k'yowopk'yudappo'' - as a rich man I would not do work. | ||
The genitive case is used for marking possession (with the possessive preceding the head noun), as well as for marking the agent in [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Transitive sentences|passive sentences]]. If the genitive case is used on a word that ends with a consonant, a vowel is inserted before the suffix. This is the same vowel as the one used in the [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Number|plural]] form. | |||
The instrumental tells that something is used as a tool. It cannot be used with personal pronouns or animate nouns. If need be, the pronoun or animate noun can be given the absolutive case, followed by the word ''küwikkōt'' (use-[[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Instructive Infinitives|INSTR.INF]]). | |||
The prolative tells "by which medium or route". For example ''rōtta hugokp'ō kūt'kōnang'' - the boat travels by river. It cannot be used with pronouns or animate nouns. | |||
===== Locational cases ===== | ===== Locational cases ===== | ||
The ablative has the meaning of "from the vicinity or topside of something". The elative on the other hand means "from the inside of something". The elative has two other uses as well. | The ablative has the meaning of "from the vicinity or topside of something". The elative on the other hand means "from the inside of something". The elative has two other uses as well. When used on a time noun it means "from that time onwards". The other use is for expressing what someone feels; the person who is feeling gets the elative case. | ||
The adessive has the meaning of "by, near or on top of something". The inessive means "inside something". Both the adessive and inessive can be used together with a time noun to indicate when something happened or will happen. The difference is that the adessive is used when the action stretches out during ''the whole'' time period, while the inessive is used about things that happened ''sometime during'' that time period. | |||
The allative has the meaning of "to the vicinity or topside of something", while the illative has the meaning "to the inside of something". The illative can also be used with a time noun to indicate "until a certain time". | The adessive has the meaning of "by, near or on top of something". The inessive means "inside something". Both the adessive and inessive can be used together with a time noun to indicate when something happened or will happen. The difference is that the adessive is used when the action stretches out during ''the whole'' time period, while the inessive is used about things that happened ''sometime during'' that time period. | ||
The "inside" meaning of the internal locatives (elative, inessive and illative) is also applied to objects that somehow cover something else (even if only partially). For example, when describing someone sitting on a chair, one of the internal locatives would be used because a chair has a back support, so the person sitting in it would have his or her back covered. A stool on the other hand does not have any part that covers a person, so one of the external locatives (ablative, adessive or allative) would be used. The external locatives are also used when describing possession of | |||
The allative has the meaning of "to the vicinity or topside of something", while the illative has the meaning "to the inside of something". The illative can also be used with a time noun to indicate "until a certain time". | |||
The "inside" meaning of the internal locatives (elative, inessive and illative) is also applied to objects that somehow cover something else (even if only partially). For example, when describing someone sitting on a chair, one of the internal locatives would be used because a chair has a back support, so the person sitting in it would have his or her back covered. A stool on the other hand does not have any part that covers a person, so one of the external locatives (ablative, adessive or allative) would be used. The external locatives are also used when describing possession of items or the transaction of items between people. The people involved are then marked with external locatives. | |||
The exessive and translative cases describe either that something turns into something else, or that something changes from one state into another. The exessive is the source and the translative is the result. The exessive can also be used to descibe what something is made of. | The exessive and translative cases describe either that something turns into something else, or that something changes from one state into another. The exessive is the source and the translative is the result. The exessive can also be used to descibe what something is made of. | ||
===== Other cases ===== | ===== Other cases ===== | ||
The abessive case has the meaning of "without". It cannot be used with personal pronouns or nouns standing for humanoid beings. Instead the preposition ''ot'pat'' is used, followed by the given noun or pronoun in essive case. | |||
The vocative case is used when addressing someone by their name or title, and also when calling someone a rude word. The word with the vocative case can be placed either at the beginning or end of the sentence. | The vocative case is used when addressing someone by their name or title, and also when calling someone a rude word. The word with the vocative case can be placed either at the beginning or end of the sentence. | ||
| Line 665: | Line 680: | ||
|| t'yapya <br> ''these'' || t'ūju <br> ''those'' || t'ō <br> ''those/they'' || pokkya <br> ''which'' || kūp'sok <br> ''which ones'' | || t'yapya <br> ''these'' || t'ūju <br> ''those'' || t'ō <br> ''those/they'' || pokkya <br> ''which'' || kūp'sok <br> ''which ones'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
The demonstrative pronouns refer to inanimate things and non-humanoid beings, except for the singular interrogative dual which can also be used about humanoids. The demonstrative pronouns can also be used as demonstrative determiners. The interrogative dual has the meaning of "which one (of two | The demonstrative pronouns refer to inanimate things and non-humanoid beings, except for the singular interrogative dual which can also be used about humanoids. The demonstrative pronouns can also be used as demonstrative determiners. The interrogative dual has the meaning of "which one (of two alternatives)". ''Kūp'sok'' is used when referring to two groups of things. | ||
==== Relative Pronouns ==== | |||
There are two relative pronouns: ''huga'', which refers to the preceding noun; and ''pokya'', which refers to the preceding clause or sentence. If a relative pronoun is used without the thing it refers to having been explicitly mentioned, then ''huga'' will be used if the implicit thing is animate, and ''pokya'' if it is inanimate. For example: | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Myat-ōt || align="left" | op'-a || align="left" | atk'wa-tto-∅, || align="left" | myad-ak' || align="left" | pog-a || align="left" | syuk'yu-∅ | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 3SG-GEN || align="left" | father-ABS || align="left" | give-INTR-HAB || align="left" | 3SG-ERG || align="left" | what-ABS || align="left" | ask.for-HAB | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="6" | ''Her father gives her what she asks for.'' | |||
|} | |||
The relative pronoun gets the same number as the thing it refers to, and whichever case is required in the position the relative pronoun appears in. Unless the relative pronoun appears without something it refers to, as in the above example, it is moved to the beginning of the relative clause. | |||
==== Reciprocal Pronoun ==== | ==== Reciprocal Pronoun ==== | ||
The reciprocal pronoun is ''k'utsossan'' (''k' | The reciprocal pronoun is ''k'utsossan'' (''k'utsossa'' in absolutive case and ''k'utsossōt'' in the genitive). Below are examples of the word in both cases. | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | M-ak' || align="left" | k' | ! align="left" | M-ak' || align="left" | k'utsoss-a || align="left" | nagapk'wa-ng | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 3PL-ERG || align="left" | each.other- | | align="left" | 3PL-ERG || align="left" | each.other-ABS || align="left" | love-PRES | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="3" | ''They love each other.'' | | colspan="3" | ''They love each other.'' | ||
| Line 678: | Line 704: | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | M-ak' || align="left" | k' | ! align="left" | M-ak' || align="left" | k'utsoss-ōt || align="left" | mofūb-ōg-a || align="left" | tōnogakk-o | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 3PL-ERG || align="left" | each.other-GEN || align="left" | hair-PL- | | align="left" | 3PL-ERG || align="left" | each.other-GEN || align="left" | hair-PL-ABS || align="left" | cut-PAST | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''They cut each other's hair.'' | | colspan="4" | ''They cut each other's hair.'' | ||
| Line 688: | Line 714: | ||
The reflexive pronoun is ''okp'ō''. | The reflexive pronoun is ''okp'ō''. | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | okp'-a || align="left" | sōpk' | ! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | okp'-a || align="left" | sōpk'-o | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | self- | | align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | self-ABS || align="left" | wash-PAST | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="3" | ''I washed myself.'' | | colspan="3" | ''I washed myself.'' | ||
| Line 697: | Line 723: | ||
The reflexive pronoun can also be used for emphasis, in which case it is placed after the verb. | The reflexive pronoun can also be used for emphasis, in which case it is placed after the verb. | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | p'-a || align="left" | k'ōmchya | ! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | p'-a || align="left" | k'ōmchya-ng || align="left" | okp'ō | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | it- | | align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | it-ABS || align="left" | do-PRES || self | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''I'll do it myself!'' | | colspan="4" | ''I'll do it myself!'' | ||
| Line 712: | Line 738: | ||
! Negative | ! Negative | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Singular | ! Singular humanoid | ||
| kūga k'annatp'a <br> ''anyone'' || hugū <br> ''someone'' || rowspan="2" | killege <br> ''everyone'' || ōno kūkyut <br> ''no one'' | | kūga k'annatp'a <br> ''anyone'' || hugū <br> ''someone'' || rowspan="2" | killege <br> ''everyone'' || ōno kūkyut <br> ''no one'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Plural | ! Plural humanoid | ||
| kōkkya k'annatp'a <br> ''anyone'' || hukkūk <br> '' | | kōkkya k'annatp'a <br> ''anyone'' || hukkūk <br> ''some'' || ōno kōkkyut <br> ''no one'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dual | |||
| kūp'so k'annatp'a <br> ''either one'' || hup'sogūp'so <br> ''either or'' || pudöbik <br> ''both'' || ōno kūp'sokyut <br> ''neither'' | |||
|- | |||
! Singular inanimate | ! Singular inanimate | ||
| pokya k'annatp'a <br> ''any | | pokya k'annatp'a <br> ''anything/any'' || hugot <br> ''something/some'' || rowspan="2" | killege <br> ''everything/all'' || ōno pokyut <br> ''nothing/no'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Plural inanimate | ! Plural inanimate | ||
| Line 728: | Line 757: | ||
=== Adjectives === | === Adjectives === | ||
[[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#San words|San adjectives]] declinate slightly differently than other adjectives, as the final ''-an'' or ''-en'' is deleted from san adjectives before comparison suffixes are added. The following table displays both types of declination. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Comparison | ! Comparison | ||
| Line 736: | Line 765: | ||
! colspan="3" | San adjectives | ! colspan="3" | San adjectives | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Positive || -∅ || | | Positive || -∅ || pyowomyazossan - late <br> negettüzessen - broken | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Comparative || -<span style="color:Red"> | | Comparative || -<span style="color:Red">ōp'so</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wüp'sö</span> || pyowomyazossōp'so - later <br> negettüzesswüp'sö - more broken | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Superlative || -<span style="color:Red"> | | Superlative || -<span style="color:Red">ot</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öt</span> || pyowomyazossot - latest <br> negettüzessöt - most broken | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Other adjectives | ! colspan="3" | Other adjectives | ||
| Line 751: | Line 780: | ||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>If the adjective ends with p, the p is deleted before this suffix is added. (There are only front vowel adjectives that end with p.) | <sup>1</sup>If the adjective ends with p, the p is deleted before this suffix is added. (There are only front vowel adjectives that end with p.) | ||
=== Epithets === | |||
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has a special part of speech called epithets. Epithets are words that precede proper nouns and define what kind of thing that proper noun is. Epithets are mostly used with people's names and names of geographical locations. They function differently from nouns and adjectives because epithets do not inflect, they cannot be used predicatively and epithets only modify proper nouns while adjectives only modify common nouns. | |||
A few epithets are identical to the corresponding noun and some are closely related to the corresponding noun. Others have been derived from other nouns, some are words that used to be nouns but have ceased to be used as such, and some are words borrowed from other languages. | |||
The use of epithets is not obligatory, especially not in full sentences. Though, when it comes to people's names, using an epithet is a sign of respect, so when speaking in the presence of someone one does not know intimately, they are almost always used together with that person's name. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! Shorthand translation of epithet | |||
! Epithet | |||
! Description | |||
|- | |||
| Bachelor | |||
| hyakkya | |||
| Signifies the name of an unmarried man (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name) | |||
|- | |||
| Bay | |||
| | |||
| Used before the name of a bay, bight or gulf | |||
|- | |||
| Beach | |||
| zyōkp'o | |||
| Used before the name of a beach | |||
|- | |||
| Bridge | |||
| p'ot'k'a | |||
| Used before the name of a bridge. This is the same word as the noun for bridge. | |||
|- | |||
| Cape | |||
| kash | |||
| Used before the name of a cape | |||
|- | |||
| City | |||
| | |||
| Used before the name of a town or city | |||
|- | |||
| Coast | |||
| fupk'a | |||
| The name of a coastline | |||
|- | |||
| Delta | |||
| chōt'k'a | |||
| Used before the name of a delta or mouth of a river. Usually a river and its delta or mouth will have the same name, but different epithets are used depending on which part one is talking about. | |||
|- | |||
| Doctor | |||
| k'umk'ungo | |||
| Used before a doctor's name (surname or surname followed by given name) | |||
|- | |||
| Ford | |||
| kamtai | |||
| Used before the name of a ford | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="2" | Forest | |||
| p'adu | |||
| Used before the name of a forest (standard) | |||
|- | |||
| kungso | |||
| Used before the name of a forest (dialectal) | |||
|- | |||
| God | |||
| hūbat' | |||
| Signifies the name of a deity | |||
|- | |||
| Highland | |||
| yotyapwa | |||
| Used before the name of a highland or elevated tableland | |||
|- | |||
| Hill | |||
| kūp'sū | |||
| Used before the name of a hill | |||
|- | |||
| Island | |||
| wo | |||
| Used before the name of an island | |||
|- | |||
| Island chain | |||
| angkossōtwafo | |||
| Used before the name of an island chain, a group of islands or an archipelago | |||
|- | |||
| King | |||
| nōsh | |||
| Signifies the name of a king | |||
|- | |||
| Lake | |||
| hyanglo | |||
| Used before the name of a lake. This is the same word as the noun for lake. | |||
|- | |||
| Land | |||
| kutk'ū | |||
| Used before the name of a piece of land, a country or a region | |||
|- | |||
| Lowland | |||
| adapwa | |||
| Used before the name of a lowland area | |||
|- | |||
| Miss | |||
| t'ōnokko | |||
| Signifies the name of an unmarried woman (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name) | |||
|- | |||
| Mister | |||
| möngi | |||
| Signifies the name of a married man (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name) | |||
|- | |||
| Mistress | |||
| nutsūlla | |||
| Signifies the name of a married woman (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name) | |||
|- | |||
| Mountain | |||
| | |||
| Used before the name of a mountain or peak | |||
|- | |||
| Mountain range | |||
| k'ūtk'ūngo | |||
| Used before the name of a mountain range | |||
|- | |||
| Pass | |||
| kūt'kū | |||
| Used before the name of a mountain pass | |||
|- | |||
| Peninsula | |||
| kofōdo | |||
| Used before the name of a peninsula | |||
|- | |||
| Plateau | |||
| | |||
| Used before the name of a plateau of undefined height (see also ''lowland (adapwa)'' and ''highland (yotyapwa)'') | |||
|- | |||
| Pond | |||
| tap'so | |||
| Used before the name of a pond or spring | |||
|- | |||
| Queen | |||
| igi | |||
| Signifies the name of a queen | |||
|- | |||
| Rapids | |||
| zhungp'i | |||
| Used before the name of some rapids | |||
|- | |||
| River | |||
| nofu | |||
| Used before the name of a river | |||
|- | |||
| Road | |||
| rofa | |||
| Used before the name of a road or street | |||
|- | |||
| Sea | |||
| ūdissi | |||
| Used before the name of a sea | |||
|- | |||
| Ship | |||
| adūp | |||
| Signifies the name of a ship or boat | |||
|- | |||
| Straight | |||
| kat'wado | |||
| Used before the name of a straight or sound | |||
|- | |||
| Stream | |||
| rongk'a | |||
| Used before the name of a stream, creek or brook | |||
|- | |||
| Swamp | |||
| nyabō | |||
| Used before the name of a swamp, marsh, bog or quagmire | |||
|- | |||
| Town drunk | |||
| hūjussu | |||
| Used before the name of a drunkard with low status in the society (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name). This usage is rude, and these people would rather prefer to be called by the epithet ''möngi'' or ''hyakkya''. | |||
|- | |||
| Valley | |||
| p'uda | |||
| Used before the name of a valley | |||
|- | |||
| Village | |||
| sok'yahya | |||
| Used before the name of a village or settlement | |||
|- | |||
| Yard | |||
| sonna | |||
| Signifies the name of a courtyard or farmyard, or signifies the house on that plot | |||
|} | |||
=== Adverbs === | === Adverbs === | ||
Below are listed adverbs that are related to the pronouns, in such a way that there is a person distinction among them as well as interrogative forms (allthough some of them distinguish fewer than three persons), and that some of them are somehow derived from the pronouns (cf. the locational adverbs with the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Demonstrative_pronouns|demonstrative pronouns]]). | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
!   | !   | ||
| Line 763: | Line 975: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locational | ! Locational | ||
| k'ue- <br> here || k'ūju- <br> there || p'e- <br> there || po- <br> where | | k'ue- <br> ''here'' || k'ūju- <br> ''there'' || p'e- <br> ''there'' || po- <br> ''where'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Temporal | ! Temporal | ||
| t'yok <br> now || colspan="2" | p'edutset <br> then || podutsat <br> when | | t'yok <br> ''now'' || colspan="2" | p'edutset <br> ''then'' || podutsat <br> ''when'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Manner | ! Manner | ||
| t'yazot <br> this way || colspan="2" | t'utsot <br> that way || pokkōt <br> how | | t'yazot <br> ''this way'' || colspan="2" | t'utsot <br> ''that way'' || pokkōt <br> ''how'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Reason | ! Reason | ||
| colspan="3" | p'ok'p'o <br> therefore || pok'p'o <br> why | | colspan="3" | p'ok'p'o <br> ''therefore'' || pok'p'o <br> ''why'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
These locational adverbs are obligatorily combined with a one of the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Case|locational cases]] ablative, adessive, allative, elative, inessive or illative. | |||
==== Quantifier adverbs ==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
!   | !   | ||
| Line 785: | Line 997: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| poppu k'annatp'a <br> ''anywhere'' || huppiget <br> ''somewhere'' || killegedi <br> ''everywhere'' || ōno | | poppu k'annatp'a <br> ''anywhere'' || huppiget <br> ''somewhere'' || killegedi <br> ''everywhere'' || ōno popkyut <br> ''nowhere'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Temporal | ! Temporal | ||
| podutsat k'annatp'a <br> ''anytime'' || hupkūp <br> ''sometime'' || allotta <br> ''all the time'' || ōno | | podutsat k'annatp'a <br> ''anytime'' || hupkūp <br> ''sometime'' || allotta <br> ''all the time'' || ōno kupkyut <br> ''never'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Manner | ! Manner | ||
| pokkōt k'annatp'a <br> ''any way'' || hukkōtkot <br> ''somehow'' || huga k'assōp' <br> ''every way'' || ōno pokkōtkyut | | pokkōt k'annatp'a <br> ''any way'' || hukkōtkot <br> ''somehow'' || huga k'assōp' <br> ''every way'' || ōno pokkōtkyut <br> ''no way'' | ||
|} | |||
=== Particles === | |||
There are several postposition, a few ambipositions (adpositions that can appear either before or after the noun it modifies) and even fewer prepositions in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo. The words that are solely postpositions require the preceding noun to have genitive case. The tables in the following sections use the word ''k'adu'' (house), and in some cases ''op'ya'' (father), as an example together with the adpositions. | |||
==== Postpositions ==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! Motion to | |||
! Being at a location | |||
! Motion away | |||
! Motion across | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut adado <br> ''under the house'' || k'adut adadu <br> ''under the house'' || k'adut adat'k'ya <br> ''from underneath the house'' || k'adut adakp'ō <br> ''underneath the house'' | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut kōpkodo <br> ''to the middle of the house'' || k'adut kōpkodu <br> ''in the middle of the house'' || k'adut kōpkot'k'ya <br> ''from the middle of the house'' || k'adut kōpkokp'ō <br> ''across the middle of the house'' | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut k'agado <br> ''behind the house'' || k'adut k'agadu <br> ''behind the house'' || k'adut k'agat'k'ya <br> ''from behind the house'' || k'adut k'agakp'ō <br> ''across the back of the house'' | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut ōkkūdo <br> ''in front of the house'' || k'adut ōkkūdu <br> ''in front of the house'' || k'adut ōkkūt'k'ya <br> ''from front of the house'' || k'adut ōkkūkp'ō <br> ''across the front of the house'' | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut p'ollūdo <br> ''beside the house'' || k'adut p'ollūdu <br> ''beside the house'' || k'adut p'ollūt'k'ya <br> ''from beside the house'' || k'adut p'ollūkp'ō <br> ''past the side of the house'' | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut p'op'yannat <br> ''into the house'' || k'adut p'op'yappu <br> ''inside the house'' || k'adut p'op'yapk'a <br> ''from the inside of the house'' || - (''tyassokp'ō'' is used instead, see the list further down this section) | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut rofōngōdo <br> ''beside the house'' || k'adut rofōngōdu <br> ''beside the house'' || k'adut rofōngōt'k'ya <br> ''from beside the house'' || - | |||
|- | |||
| op'yat tūjudo <br> ''to father's home/vicinity'' || op'yat tūjudu <br> ''at father's home/vicinity'' || op'yat tūjut'k'ya <br> ''from father's home/vicinity'' || - | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut tyannodo <br> ''near the house'' || k'adut tyannodu <br> ''near the house'' || colspan="2" | k'adut tyannot'k'ya <br> ''from near the house / something passes by close to the house'' | |||
|- | |||
| k'adut yotyado <br> ''on top of the house / above the house'' || k'adut yotyadu <br> ''on top of the house / above the house'' || k'adut yotyat'k'ya <br> ''from the top of the house / from above the house'' || k'adut yotyakp'ō <br> ''over the house'' | |||
|} | |||
The difference between ''p'ollū-'' and ''rofōngō-'' is that ''p'ollū-'' denotes the flank or the location immediately next to something, while ''rofōngō-'' denotes a wider area. So for example ''sa ut k'adut rofōngōdu'' (the tree is beside the house) could be said even if there is some third object between the house and the tree, making it impossible to see the house from where the tree is. ''Sa ut k'adut p'ollūdu'' means that "the tree is right next to the house". ''K'adut p'ollūdu'' can also mean "on the wall (flank) of the house". Though ''p'ollū-'' and ''rofōngō-'' are synonymous to many speakers. | |||
The ''tūju-'' postpositions can only be used in reference to an animate being. They can either have the meaning of near that person, or that person's home (whether or not s/he is home). | |||
The ''tyanno-'' postpositions can also be used as adverbs (without any preceding noun). | |||
The following invariant postpositions also exist. They all require the preceding noun to have genitive case, except for ''rangk'ōt''. | |||
*hyat'kodu - after (locational) | |||
*hyat'koppu - after (temporal) | |||
*ippöpyette - in someone's place | |||
*killūkki - via | |||
*k'agofa - for someone's sake; because of | |||
*rangk'ōt<sup>1</sup> - for a purpose | |||
*sūjudopk'a - on behalf of somebody | |||
*tyassokp'ō - through | |||
*unnokp'ō - past (locational) | |||
*yop'syongo - around (only one lap, see also [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Prepositions|Prepositions]]) | |||
<sup>1</sup>This postposition requires the noun to have the exessive case instead of genitive. | |||
==== Ambipositions ==== | |||
The following table shows all ambipositions as well as the cases they call for in the nouns they modify. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! Ambiposition | |||
! Case of noun | |||
|- | |||
| kumk'o - toward || Allative | |||
|- | |||
| kutk'yunga - against || Essive | |||
|- | |||
| rapk'ōt - against || Any [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Locational cases|external locative]] | |||
|- | |||
| rapk'wat - toward; versus || Allative | |||
|- | |||
| sokkot - along || Any [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Locational cases|external locative]] | |||
|} | |||
The difference between ''kumk'o'' and ''rapk'wat'' is that ''rapk'wat'' is only used about something moving towards a person. ''Kumk'o'' is used either about someone or something moving towards some inanimate object or place, about someone moving with malicious intent toward some person, or about something capable of causing injury moving towards a person. ''Rapk'wat'' can not have any of these meanings. ''Rapk'wat'' is usually used about a person moving toward someone else to greet that person, or for describing who or what one has met during one's way. With these meanings, ''rapk'wat'' can also be used as an adverb modifying an inessive infinitive. Paradoxically, one other use for ''rapk'wat'' is like the word "versus" in a battle (possibly because a sports battle is entered with both parties' consent, while battles in war are meant to be fought with a code of honour). | |||
The difference between ''kutk'yunga'' and ''rapk'ōt'' is that ''rapk'ōt'' is used for describing the position of some object, usually together with verbs with meanings similar to "lean". ''Kutk'yunga'' on the other hand is used about someone or something being against someone else's order or will. | |||
==== Prepositions ==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! Preposition | |||
! Case of noun | |||
|- | |||
| kallo - probably || - | |||
|- | |||
| ot'pat - without || Essive | |||
|- | |||
| öttöt - before || Essive or illative | |||
|- | |||
| yop'syongo - around (several laps) || Adessive | |||
|} | |||
''Kallo'' is used at the beginning of a sentence, even before any question words. In declarative sentences it has meanings like "probably" or "maybe", signalling the speaker's uncertainty. In questions it means something like "surely", signalling that the speaker is making a guess. ''Kallo'' is not used in [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Imperative_sentences|imperative sentences]]. | |||
''Ot'pat'' can only be used together with pronouns or nouns standing for humanoid beings. | |||
''Öttöt'' (which can also be used as an adverb) calls for the illative case on time nouns or other nouns that denote a specific time, and otherwise essive. See examples below. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Pot'-a || align="left" | mōnyak'ya-tt-o || align="left" | öttöt || align="left" | allūngotkut-t'uptūgu-nnat | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 1SG-ABS || align="left" | wake.up-INTR-PAST || align="left" | before || align="left" | sun-rise-ILL | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''I woke up before sunrise.'' | |||
|} | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | P'ot'-a || align="left" | k'ūdi-tt-o || align="left" | kukko-nnat || align="left" | öttöt || align="left" | pot'ya-tk'a | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 2SG-ABS || align="left" | come-INTR-PAST || align="left" | home-ILL || align="left" | before || align="left" | 1SG-ESS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | ''You came home before me.'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
''Yop'syongo'' is used like preposition when talking about something that goes several turns around. If talking about something that makes only one turn, it is used like a [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Postpositions|postposition]]. | |||
=== Numerals === | === Numerals === | ||
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has a decimal system. The numbers 11-19 are expressed by adding the suffix -k'utsossan to one of the numbers 1-9. Higher numbers are expressed simply by placing the name of one of the numbers 2-9 before the name of one of the numbers 10, 100, 1000 or 10 000. For example, 20 is called ''kak'p'o-kwibössen'' and 317 is called ''kut'pō-p'akka-kwibössen-p'ōnokp'ōpyat''. | Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has a decimal system. The numbers 11-19 are expressed by adding the suffix ''-k'utsossan'' to one of the numbers 1-9. Higher numbers are expressed simply by placing the name of one of the numbers 2-9 before the name of one of the numbers 10, 100, 1000 or 10 000. For example, 20 is called ''kak'p'o-kwibössen'' and 317 is called ''kut'pō-p'akka-kwibössen-p'ōnokp'ōpyat''. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Number | ! Number | ||
| Line 826: | Line 1,142: | ||
| 1000 || k'ūnnak || k'ūnnap || k'ūnnakk'ullat | | 1000 || k'ūnnak || k'ūnnap || k'ūnnakk'ullat | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 10 000 || || || | | 10 000 || pyongofacho || pyongofachap || pyongofachok'ullat | ||
|- | |||
| Interrogative || putk'a(gu) || puttōp(ku) || puttok'ullat(ku) | |||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>The -ssen suffix is deleted when a [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Numeral Classifiers|numeral classifier]] is added. | <sup>1</sup>The ''-ssen'' suffix is deleted when a [[Proto-Kunnurūjungo#Numeral Classifiers|numeral classifier]] is added. | ||
The cardinal numerals are like one, two, three, while the ordinal numerals are like first, second, third | |||
The cardinal numerals are like one, two, three, while the ordinal numerals are like first, second, third. The distributive numerals are used for expressing how many parts something should be divided into. These are indeed the same as the cardinal numbers with the distributive case. The interrogative number is used when asking questions that include "how many...", and also as a relative pronoun. Interrogative numerals are always used with the interrogative clitic ''-ku'', which is placed after any numeral classifier. | |||
==== Numeral Classifiers ==== | ==== Numeral Classifiers ==== | ||
Normally numerals are used together with a classifier suffix. Different suffixes are used depending on what is counted. So for example two carrots would be called ''kak'p'ohaingo sungkitti'' while two rocks would be called ''kak'p'opwomkyonya kollo'' (''sungkitti'' meaning carrot and ''kollo'' rock). | |||
The | |||
The classifier is used regardless if the numeral is used for modifying a noun or if it is used predicatively. The noun can even be dropped if it is clear from context and the classifier what is being referred to. If just counting numbers, then no classifier is used. | |||
Below is a list of classifiers. Since there are no neutral vowel numerals, the suffixes are simply presented with back vowel suffixes first and front vowel suffixes second. | |||
{| class ="wikitable" | {| class ="wikitable" | ||
! Shorthand name | |||
! Suffix | ! Suffix | ||
! Use | ! Use | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -tsya <br> -tsye | | Abstract || -<span style="color:Red">tsya</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">tsye</span> || Abstract things; also used when one does not know what other classifier to use | ||
|- | |||
| Age || -<span style="color:Red">(p)pallo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ppellö</span> || Years of age of people and things | |||
|- | |||
| Animals || -ukkūp || Animals that do not fall under any of the other categories | |||
|- | |||
| Birds || -<span style="color:Red">(t)tugu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ttugi</span> || Birds and bats | |||
|- | |||
| Bottles || -syūdu || Bottles and beverages stored in bottles | |||
|- | |||
| Bugs || -<span style="color:Red">bakku</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">bekku</span> || Small animals such as insects, worms and amphibians | |||
|- | |||
| Buildings || -<span style="color:Red">gukku</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">gikku</span> || Buildings | |||
|- | |||
| Bundles || -<span style="color:Red">(t)tassū</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ttessū</span> || Bundles and bunches of things | |||
|- | |||
| Canines || -<span style="color:Red">(n)nūgu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">nnūgi</span> || Dogs and wolves | |||
|- | |||
| Cattle || -<span style="color:Red">(p)panglōgap</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ppengrwügep</span> || Livestock (excluding poultry) | |||
|- | |||
| Children || -<span style="color:Red">gaknap</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">geknep</span> || Children of humanoid creatures | |||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Clothes || -<span style="color:Red">(k)kabottō</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kkebötwü</span> || Clothes worn on the body, including shawls and scarfs but excluding other accessories | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Collective || -k<sup>1</sup> || Groups or things that consist of several parts | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Containers || -<span style="color:Red">(p)patku</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ppetku</span> || Containers other than bottles | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Eggs || -<span style="color:Red">uk'</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ük'</span> || Eggs, excluding roe and spawn | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Fish || -<span style="color:Red">zhoppū</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">zhöppū</span> || Caught fish | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Flat || -<span style="color:Red">dallūjō</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">dellūjwü</span> || Flat objects made of unflexible material; places | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -( | | Fruit || -<span style="color:Red">(n)nōllo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">nwüllö || Fruit, berries, nuts and vegetables other than root vegetables | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Horses || -<span style="color:Red">(n)nossu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">nnössi</span> || Horses | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Large || -<span style="color:Red">hyangkyadō</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">hyengkyetwü</span> || Large object, e.g. mountains, sun, moon | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Layers || -<span style="color:Red">gongup</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">göngup</span> || Floors and layers | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Machine || -<span style="color:Red">guhō</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">guhwü</span> || Machines and vehicles | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Marine || -<span style="color:Red">ōlyakyap</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wülyekyep</span> || Sea creatures (not caught) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Motion || -<span style="color:Red">llofūm</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">llöfūm</span> || Words for movements, especially nominalized motion verbs | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Multiplicative || -<span style="color:Red">gōngk'a</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kwüngk'e</span> || Number of times something is done | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Oblong || -<span style="color:Red">swokkwo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">swökkwö</span> || Long and narrow objects, excluding those things that go into the pipes category | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Pairs || -<span style="color:Red">(s)sango</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ssengö</span> || Pairs of things, as well as objects that consist of two similar parts | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | rowspan="2" | People || -kyu || Humanoid creatures other than children (standard) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | -syu || Humanoid creatures other than children (dialectal) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Piles || -<span style="color:Red">gūgūngu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">gūgūngi</span> || Piles and heaps of things and materials | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Pipes || -<span style="color:Red">nwowongo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">nwöwöngö</span> || Hollow, oblong things | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Root vegetables || -<span style="color:Red">haingo <br> -<span style="color:Blue">hingö</span> || Root vegetables and bulbs | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Round || -<span style="color:Red">pwomkyonya</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">pwömkyönye</span> || Small round objects | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Seafood || -<span style="color:Red">gada</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">gede</span> || Sea creatures other than fish that has been caught | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Sheets || -<span style="color:Red">ungka</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ingke</span> || Flat objects made of flexible material, like paper or fabric | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Small || -<span style="color:Red">ō</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wü</span> || Small non-round items | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Strands || -<span style="color:Red">noshp'o</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">nöshp'ö</span> || Very thin and oblong things, e.g. strands of hair, rivers | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Strings || -<span style="color:Red">gōnya</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kwünye</span> || Strings, threads, ropes, etc. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Substance || -<span style="color:Red">kwogwo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kwögwö</span> || Things that consist of liquid, a mushy substance or fine powder | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Trees || -<span style="color:Red">(k)kūga</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kkūge</span> || Trees, excluding bushes | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Void || -<span style="color:Red">ubu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ibu</span> || Holes, hollows and negative spaces | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | Wood || -<span style="color:Red">gudagu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">gidegi</span> || Pieces of wood and items made from cut wood | ||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>The final consonant is deleted from p'ōnokp'ōpyat, kamchōk'p'at | <sup>1</sup>The final consonant is deleted from ''p'ōnokp'ōpyat'', ''kamchōk'p'at'' and ''yomchōk'p'yat'' when this suffix is added. ''Kwibössen'' becomes ''kwibössek'' and ''k'ūnnak'' becomes ''k'ūnnagōk''. | ||
== Syntax == | == Syntax == | ||
=== | === Valency operations === | ||
Each verb in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo is inherently either transitive and intransitive. Intransitive verbs can further be divided into two types: Those that take an agent-like subject, A-intransitives, and those that take a patient-like subject, P-intransitives. ''Hūjupk'a'' (run) is an example of an A-intransitive. The subject is the person who runs. ''Hyuk'yoya'' (freeze) is an example of a P-intransitive. Its subject is the thing that turns into ice, not the person who is freezing something. The table below shows which kind of verbs can take which voice and transitivity suffixes, and what cases their arguments will have. The number in parenthesis corresponds to the example sentences in the following sections. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! !! INTR !! TR !! PASS !! CAUS !! PASS-CAUS | |||
|- | |||
! A-Intransitive | |||
| agent-ABS verb-INTR (1) || - || verb-PASS (5) || causer-ERG causee-ALL verb-CAUS (7) || causee-ABS (causer-GEN) verb-PASS.CAUS (10) | |||
|- | |||
! P-Intransitive | |||
| patient-ABS verb-INTR (2) || - || - || agent-ERG patient-ABS verb-CAUS (8) || causee-ABS (causer-GEN) verb-PASS.CAUS (11) | |||
|- | |||
! Transitive | |||
| agent-ABS verb-INTR (3) || agent-ERG patient-ABS verb-TR (4) || patient-ABS (agent-GEN) verb-PASS (6) || causer-ERG causee-ALL patient-ABS verb-CAUS (9) || causee-ERG patient-ABS (causer-GEN) verb-PASS.CAUS (12) | |||
|} | |||
==== Intransitives ==== | |||
The intransitive marker can be used on all kinds of verbs. The absolutive case is used on the sole argument of the intransitive verb. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | 1) || align="left" | Kutsong-a || align="left" | myosyak'ya-tto-ng. | |||
|- | |||
| || align="left" | dog-ABS || align="left" | jump-INTR-PRES | |||
|- | |||
| || colspan="2" | ''The dog jumps.'' | |||
|} | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | 2) || align="left" | Sw-a || align="left" | satwa-tto-ng. | |||
|- | |||
| || align="left" | wood-ABS || align="left" | burn-INTR-PRES | |||
|- | |||
| || colspan="2" | ''The wood burns.'' | |||
|} | |||
The intransitive marker can be used on inherently transitive verbs, and then it functions like antipassive voice: it removes the object from the sentence. One reason for doing this is that some verbs have a prototypical object, so it seems unnecessary to even mention the object. For example, in the sentence ''k'wik'ek' tallūda tallūdo'' (the girl sang a song) ''tallūdu'' (song) would be usual object of ''tallūtwa'' (sing). Furthermore, the word for song has been derived from the word for sing, so there is unneeded repetition in the sentence. Therefore a speaker would likely say ''k'wik'a tallūtwatto'' (the girl sang) instead. Even a non-typical object, which is obvious from context, might get deleted this way. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | 3) || align="left" | Pot'-a || align="left" | p'yowochya-tto-ng. | |||
|- | |||
| || align="left" | 1SG-ABS || align="left" | eat-INTR-PRES | |||
|- | |||
| || colspan="2" | ''I eat.'' | |||
|} | |||
==== Transitives ==== | |||
Transitive verbs are zero-marked. The "marker" may not be used on inherently intransitive verbs. If one wants to introduce another argument into a sentence with an intransitive verb, the new argument needs to have some non-core case. When the verb is transitive, the subject takes ergative case and the object takes absolutive case. | |||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | ubōtt-a || align="left" | p'yowochya-∅-ng | ! align="left" | 4) || align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | ubōtt-a || align="left" | p'yowochya-∅-ng. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | apple- | | || align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | apple-ABS || align="left" | eat-TR-PRES | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="3" | ''I eat an apple.'' | | || colspan="3" | ''I eat an apple.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== Passives ==== | |||
The passive voice removes the agent from the sentence. It can optionally be reinserted into the sentence with the use of the genitive case. The structure of a passive sentence is '''patient-ABS (agent-GEN) auxiliary-TNS main-verb-PST.PTCP'''. (Note that the passive voice is expressed by preceding the main verb with the auxiliary verb ''k'ūdi'' and adding the past participle suffix ''-ttūk'' to the main verb.) | |||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | | ! 6) || align="left" | Ubōtt-a || align="left" | (pot'ya-t) || align="left" | k'ūd-ö || align="left" | p'yowo-ttūk. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | | | || align="left" | apple-ABS || align="left" | (1SG-GEN) || align="left" | PASS.AUX-PAST || align="left" | eat-PST.PTCP | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan=" | | || colspan="3" | ''The apple got eaten (by me).'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
In | |||
There are a few A-intransitives that can be passivized. In that case the verb becomes zero-valent. These verbs usually describe forces that are not in anyone's control. | |||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | | ! 5) || align="left" | Rūjungo-du || align="left" | kurwa || align="left" | k'ūdi-ng || align="left" | sūnnat'-tūk. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | | | || align="left" | mountain-ADE || align="left" | hard.ADV || align="left" | PASS.AUX-PRS || align="left" | blow-PST.PTCP | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan=" | | || colspan="4" | ''The wind is blowing hard at the mountain.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== | ==== Causatives ==== | ||
The causative voice is used for describing what someone makes someone else do. The person who is made to do something is marked with the allative case and the causer with ergative case. | |||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | | ! 7) || align="left" | Yazokk-ak' || align="left" | rallūlla-do || align="left" | kyot'sō-k'ya-ng. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | | | || align="left" | mother-ERG || align="left" | baby-ALL || align="left" | bathe-CAUS-PRS | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan=" | | || colspan="3" | ''The mother bathes the baby.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
The | |||
When the verb is transitive, the direct object gets absolutive case. The order of arguments is '''causer causee DO verb'''. The patient argument may optionally be dropped when the verb is transitive and causative. | |||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Pot'- | ! align="left" | 9) || align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | myat-to || align="left" | (tallūd-a) || align="left" | kwe-k'ye-ng | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | 1SG- | | || align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | 3SG-ALL || align="left" | (song-ABS) || align="left" | hear-CAUS-PRES | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan=" | | || colspan="4" | ''I make him hear (a song).'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
When used on P-intransitives, one could say that the causative voice is used for turning the verb transitive. The agent or causer still takes ergative case, but these verbs deviate from the A-intransitives in that second argument takes absolutive case. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | 8) || align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | rōpp-a || align="left" | k'ūdi || align="left" | hyuk'yo-k'ya | |||
|- | |||
| || align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | water-ABS || align="left" | AUX.FUT || align="left" | freeze-CAUS | |||
|- | |||
| || colspan="4" | ''I will freeze the water.'' | |||
|} | |||
Besides the patient, the causee may also be dropped from the sentence, regardless of the type of verb. The patient and causee may even be both dropped from the same sentence. The causer, however, may not be dropped from these sentences; to make such a sentence one needs to use the passive-causative voice. | |||
==== Passive-causatives ==== | |||
The passive-causative voice is used for indicating that someone is made to do something, but not by whom; although the causer can be reinserted into sentence by employing the genitive case. The difference between the passive and the passive-causative is the role of the first argument in the sentence: in passive sentences it is a patient, while in passive-causative sentences it is an agent (which may be followed by a patient). Both voices have in common that another argument can optionally be inserted into the sentence; this argument being the instigator of the whole action. The passive-causative often has the implication that the causee is somehow negatively affected by being forced to do something (possibly in examples 10 and 12 below), though the sentence could also have a neutral meaning (example 11). | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | 10) || align="left" | Mōlluss-a || align="left" | (ubapha-t) || align="left" | k'ūdi-ng || align="left" | hūjup-tūk-k'ya. | |||
|- | |||
| || align="left" | horse-ABS || align="left" | (owner-GEN) || align="left" | PASS.AUX-PRS || align="left" | run-PST.PTCP-CAUS | |||
|- | |||
| || colspan="4" | ''The horse is being made to run (by its owner).'' | |||
|} | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | 11) || align="left" | T'yapya || align="left" | kūgiss-ōg-a || align="left" | (pūkp'o-t) || align="left" | k'ūdi-ng || align="left" | kap-tūk-k'ya. | |||
|- | |||
| || align="left" | these || align="left" | flower-PL-ABS || align="left" | (mother-GEN) || align="left" | PASS.AUX-PRS || align="left" | grow-PST.PTCP-CAUS | |||
|- | |||
| || colspan="5" | ''These flowers were grown (by mom).'' | |||
|} | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | 12) || align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | mat'kōkkōt'p-a || align="left" | (zhalloha-t) || align="left" | k'ūd-o || align="left" | mi-ttūk-k'ye. | |||
|- | |||
| || align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | firewood-ABS || align="left" | (father-GEN) || align="left" | PASS.AUX-PST || align="left" | chop-PST.PTCP-CAUS | |||
|- | |||
| || colspan="5" | ''I was made to chop firewood (by my father).'' | |||
|} | |||
If the verb is transitive, then either the causee or patient (but not both) may be dropped. The patient may be dropped without any other changes. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | (zhalloha-t) || align="left" | k'ūd-o || align="left" | mi-ttūk-k'ye. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | (father-GEN) || align="left" | PASS.AUX-PST || align="left" | chop-PST.PTCP-CAUS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''I was made to chop (by my father).'' | |||
|} | |||
But if the causee is dropped, it takes the place of the causer. So the optional arguement marked with genitive case is the causee and not the causer. The causer may not be reinserted into the sentence. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Mat'kōkkōt'p-a || align="left" | (pot'ya-t) || align="left" | k'ūd-o || align="left" | mi-ttūk-k'ye. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | firewood-ABS || align="left" | (1SG-GEN) || align="left" | PASS.AUX-PST || align="left" | chop-PST.PTCP-CAUS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''The firewood was made to be chopped (through me).'' | |||
|} | |||
=== Imperative sentences === | |||
When [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Mood|imperative mood]] is used on a verb, that verb (or verb complex) is moved to the beginning of the sentence. The addressee can optionally be added at the beginning or end of the sentence. The addressee will have the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Other_cases|vocative case]]. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Kebu-∅ || align="left" | magō || align="left" | rōpp-a || align="left" | sūngu-pk'a. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | PR-VOC || align="left" | fetch.IMP || align="left" | water-ABS || align="left" | stream-ELA | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''Kebu, fetch some water from the stream!'' | |||
|} | |||
The sentence will not have a subject, though the addressee could be argued to be the subject. If there is an object, it will have absolutive case. No tense or aspect marking is used on the verb, except for that the frequentative may be used. If the frequentative is used, then the present frequentative suffix is added after the final syllable of the verb has been deleted. If the energetic suffix is also used, it is placed after the frequentative. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Pagū-du-ng-sa || align="left" | p'ō || align="left" | hūjub-a. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | taste.IMP-FREQ-PRS-ENRG || align="left" | DEM.3SG || align="left" | drink-ABS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3" | ''Have some of that drink.'' | |||
|} | |||
The intransitive suffix is not used together with the imperative, so transitive and intransitive verbs are not morphologically distinguished. The object of a transitive verb may be dropped without making any further changes to the verb. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Pagū! | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | drink.IMP | |||
|- | |||
| ''Drink!'' | |||
|} | |||
The imperative can be used on passive verbs, in which case it is marked on the auxiliary ''k'ūdi''. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | K'ū || align="left" | t'yam-tūk || align="left" | ūdup || align="left" | pött-öppi, || align="left" | Hyongko-∅. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | PASS.AUX.IMP || align="left" | see-PST.PTCP || align="left" | out || align="left" | go-INE.INF || align="left" | PR-VOC | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''Be seen when you exit, Hyongko.'' | |||
|} | |||
The causative voice cannot be used together with the imperative mood. Instead the following method is used: First ''p'wa'' (get.IMP), ''sop'' (put.IMP) or ''tille'' (put.IMP) is put at the beginning of the sentence, then the causee with allative case is added, then the patient with absolutive case, and finally the main verb with the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Adverb_infinitives|adverb infinitive]] and translative case. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Tille || align="left" | tashp'o-k-to || align="left" | sungkitti-g-e || align="left" | kūjungo-ba-k'p'o. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | put.IMP || align="left" | child-PL-ALL || align="left" | carrot-PL-ABS || align="left" | peel-ADV.INF-TRANSL | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''Have the children peel the carrots.'' | |||
|} | |||
There is very little distinction in the choice of ''p'wa'', ''sop'' or ''tille''. ''P'wa'' could be used in a situation where the causer somehow needs to exert very little power or influence to get things going. ''Sop'' could possibly have negative connotations, as if the causer is supposed to boss someone around. ''Tille'' could be used in a situation where workers, servants, people in one's household etc. are to be put to work, but without the negative overtones of ''sop''. | |||
=== Interrogative sentences === | === Interrogative sentences === | ||
Questions are made by either using a question word, which is moved to the beginning of the sentence, or by adding the interrogative suffix -gu to the word that is questioned. A word with the interrogative suffix is also moved to the beginning of the sentence. | Questions are made by either using a question word, which is moved to the beginning of the sentence, or by adding the interrogative suffix ''-gu'' to the word that is questioned. A word with the interrogative suffix is also moved to the beginning of the sentence. If the suffix is used on a verb, it is placed on the first auxiliary (if there is one), and the whole verb complex is moved to the beginning of the sentence. | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Pog-a || align="left" | p'ot'-ak' || align="left" | p'wach | ! align="left" | Pog-a || align="left" | p'ot'-ak' || align="left" | p'wach-o? | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | what- | | align="left" | what-ABS || align="left" | you-ERG || align="left" | get-PAST | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="3" | ''What did you get?'' | | colspan="3" | ''What did you get?'' | ||
| Line 962: | Line 1,469: | ||
{| | {| | ||
! align="left" | Ut-to-gu || align="left" | kyot' | ! align="left" | Ut-to-gu || align="left" | kyot'sōya-ng || align="left" | p'ot'-a? | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="left" | PERF- | | align="left" | PERF-INTR-Q || align="left" | bathe-PRES || align="left" | you-ABS | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="3" | ''Have you bathed?'' | | colspan="3" | ''Have you bathed?'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== Negation === | |||
Negation is done with the negative auxiliary verb ''ōno''. The verb that is negated get the simple infinitive form and is placed directly after ''ōno'', with ''ōno'' taking all the conjugation; unless there is need to use the habitual tense or perfect or progressive aspect, in which case the negated verb is conjugated normally and ''ōno'' is placed before that verb without any marking. | |||
The ''ōno'' that precedes the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Quantifier pronouns|negative pronouns]] is removed when these words are used in negative sentences. | |||
=== Comparative constructions === | |||
To make comparative constructions where and adjective is compared, such as "X is more ADJ than what Y is", Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo uses the following construction: '''X-ABS ADJ-COMP kūjot Y-ABS COP'''. For example: | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | K'yapya || align="left" | k'ad-a || align="left" | oppu-p'so || align="left" | kūjot || align="left" | p'-a || align="left" | udi-tto-ng. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | this || align="left" | house-ABS || align="left" | big-COMP || align="left" | than || align="left" | that.3SG-ABS || align="left" | be-INTR-PRS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="6" | ''This house is bigger than that one.'' | |||
|} | |||
If it is a verb that is compared instead of an adjective, the following construction is used: '''X (OBJ-ABS) V öttöbüt kūjot Y''' (or '''X (OBJ-ABS) öttöbüt V kūjot Y'''). The cases of X and Y depend on the transitivity of the verb, and if Y is an agent or patient. X will have ergative case if the verb is transitive, and absolutive case if the verb is intransitive. Y will have ergative case if the verb is transitive <u>and</u> Y is the object of that verb. Otherwise Y will have absolutive case. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | P'ot'-ak' || align="left" | p'ofōbōd-ōg-a || align="left" | p'yowochya-∅ || align="left" | öttöbüt || align="left" | kūjot || align="left" | totk'-ak'. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 2SG-ERG || align="left" | seed-PL-ABS || align="left" | eat-HAB || align="left" | more || align="left" | than || align="left" | bird-ERG | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="6" | ''You eat more seeds than what birds do.'' | |||
|} | |||
In the example above, ''p'yowochya'' (eat) has two subjects, ''p'ot'ya'' (you) and ''totk'ū'' (bird). They both have ergative marking. ''P'ofōbōdōk'' (seeds) is the object, so it has absolutive marking. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | P'ot'-ak' || align="left" | p'ofōbōd-ōg-a || align="left" | p'yowochya-∅ || align="left" | öttöbüt || align="left" | kūjot || align="left" | totk'ū-g-a. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 2SG-ERG || align="left" | seed-PL-ABS || align="left" | eat-HAB || align="left" | more || align="left" | than || align="left" | bird-PL-ABS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="6" | ''You eat more seeds than you eat birds.'' | |||
|} | |||
In this second example, the word ''totk'ūk'' (birds) has absolutive marking, meaning that the birds are an object. If the sentence has no object, then both X and Y will have the absolutive case and the verb will have intransitive marking. The Y argument will then be a subject. As an example: | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | P'ot'-a || align="left" | p'yowochya-tto-∅ || align="left" | öttöbüt || align="left" | kūjot || align="left" | totk'-a. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 2SG-ABS || align="left" | eat-INTR-HAB || align="left" | more || align="left" | than || align="left" | bird-ABS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="6" | ''You eat more than what a bird does.'' | |||
|} | |||
=== Relative clauses === | |||
==== Bound relative clauses ==== | |||
Bound relative clauses make use of the relative pronoun ''huga'', which refers back to the previous noun (the antecedent). The relative clause is inserted inside the main clause, right after the antecedent, with ''huga'' introducing the relative clause. The antecedent has whatever case it is required to have in the main clause, and ''huga'' takes whatever case it is required to have inside the relative clause. | |||
The antecedent may have any role of the [[Wikipedia:Relative_clause#Accessibility_hierarchy|accessibility hierarchy]] in the relative clause, as shown below. The antecent has been underlined in these examples, and the relative clause surrounded by [ ]. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" colspan="5" | <u>Subject</u> of relative clause | |||
|- | |||
! align="left" | <u>Mōlluss-a</u> || align="left" | [hug-a || align="left" | kangakka-tt-o] || align="left" | nūpkōna || align="left" | udi-tto-ng. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | <u>horse-ABS</u> || align="left" | [REL.PRON-ABS || align="left" | escape-INTR-PST] || align="left" | brown || align="left" | be-INTR-PRS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | ''The <u>horse</u> [that ran away] is brown.'' | |||
|} | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" colspan="8" | <u>Direct object</u> of relative clause | |||
|- | |||
! align="left" | <u>Mōlluss-a</u> || align="left" | [hug-a || align="left" | pot'-ak' || align="left" | rofōch-o || align="left" | t'wassūngo-t || align="left" | sonna-do] || align="left" | ut-to-ng || align="left" | kangak-tūk. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | <u>horse-ABS</u> || align="left" | [REL.PRON-ABS || align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | take-PST || align="left" | neighbor-GEN || yard-ALL] || align="left" | PRF.AUX-INTR-PRS || align="left" | escape-PST.PTCP | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="8" | ''The <u>horse</u> [which I brought to the neighbor's yard] has run away.'' | |||
|} | |||
The word order in the relative clause may become different than word order normally, since the relative pronoun needs to be in the beginning of the clause. In this sentence ''huga'' is an object, which normally would appear after the subject, appears here before it. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" colspan="7" | <u>Indirect object</u> of relative clause | |||
|- | |||
! align="left" | <u>T'wassūng-a</u> || align="left" | huga-do || align="left" | pot'-ak' || align="left" | kangak-tūk || align="left" | mōlluss-a || align="left" | k'ūjuch-o] || align="left" | odossan-t-o. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | <u>neighbor-ABS</u> || align="left" | REL.PRON-ALL || align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | escape-PST.PTCP || align="left" | horse-ABS || align="left" | bring-PST || align="left" | happy-INTR-PST | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="7" | ''The <u>neighbor</u>, [to whom I brought the escaped horse], was happy.'' | |||
|} | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" colspan="9" | <u>Oblique</u> of relative clause | |||
|- | |||
! align="left" | <u>Sonn-a</u>, || align="left" | [huga-du || align="left" | yop'syongo || align="left" | k'ūju || align="left" | mōlluss-a || align="left" | hūjupk'a-tto-ng], || align="left" | pot'ya-t || align="left" | t'wassūngo-t || align="left" | udi-tto-ng. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | <u>yard-ABS</u> || align="left" | [REL.PRON-ADE || align="left" | around || align="left" | DEM.2SG || align="left" | horse-ABS || align="left" | run-INTR-PRS] || align="left" | 1SG-GEN || align="left" | neighbor-GEN || align="left" | be-INTR-PRS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="9" | ''The <u>yard</u>, [around which that horse runs], is my neighbor's.'' | |||
|} | |||
Even if ''huga'' is the complement of a preposition, it goes before that preposition. (For the usage of ''yop'syongo'', see [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Prepositions|Prepositions]].) When a preposition is preceded by ''huga'' in this way, the relative clause is marked by intonation. In transcription this can be marked with commas. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" colspan="6" | <u>Genitive</u> in the relative clause | |||
|- | |||
! align="left" | <u>T'wassūng-a</u> || align="left" | [huga-t || align="left" | mōlluss-a || align="left" | kangakka-tt-o] || align="left" | sūda-ppu || align="left" | udi-tto-ng. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | <u>neighbor-ABS</u> || align="left" | [REL.PRON-GEN || align="left" | horse-ABS || align="left" | escape-INTR-PST] || align="left" | trouble-INE || align="left" | be-INTR-PRS | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="6" | ''The <u>neighbor</u>, [whose horse ran away], is in trouble.'' | |||
|} | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" colspan="10" | <u>Object of comparison</u> | |||
|- | |||
! align="left" | K'ūju || align="left" | <u>pofōb-ak'</u>, || align="left" | [hug-a || align="left" | pot'-a || align="left" | zhok'p'ū-p'so || align="left" | kūjot || align="left" | udi-tto-ng], || align="left" | mōllussa-t || align="left" | kangakka-∅ || align="left" | atk'-o. | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | DEM.2SG || align="left" | <u>man-ERG</u> || align="left" | [REL.PRON-ABS || align="left" | 1SG-ABS || align="left" | smart-COMP || align="left" | than || align="left" | be-INTR-PRS] || align="left" | horse-GEN || align="left" | escape-INF || align="left" | let-PST | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="10" | ''That <u>man</u>, [who I'm smarter than], let his horse escape.'' | |||
|} | |||
The relative clause otherwise follows the template of the [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Comparative_constructions|comparative construction]], except that the second argument, the relative pronoun in this case, is moved to the beginning of the construction. Just as in the example about obliques, the relative clause is marked by intonation (and commas). This is due to the conjunction ''kūjot'' (than) normally requiring a following word, which is now missing. | |||
=== Purpose clauses === | |||
There are several ways in which purpose can be expressed in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo. One way is to have the main event followed by the dependent event with the conjunction ''hukki'' between them. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | kad-a || align="left" | p'ūjudakka-ng || align="left" | hukki || align="left" | p'-a || align="left" | ōno-tt-o || align="left" | sodak'yoya-ppo | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | fish-ABS || align="left" | salt-PRES || align="left" | so.that || align="left" | it-ABS || align="left" | not-ACT.INTR-PAST || align="left" | get.bad-COND | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="7" | ''I salt the fish so that it will not get bad''. | |||
|} | |||
If the two verbs have the same agent, the dependent verb can be turned into a simple infinitive with translative case. If the main verb is a verb of movement (such as go, come, etc.), then the dependent verb may alternatively be realized as an adverb infinitive. Both ways are exemplified in the following two sentences: | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | nūjug-a || align="left" | up-pa-k'p'o || align="left" | pingketti-dö || align="left" | pöttü-tt-ö | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | food-ABS || align="left" | buy-ACT.ADV.INF-TRANSL || align="left" | market-ALL || align="left" | go-ACT.INTR-PAST | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | ''I went to the market to buy food.'' | |||
|} | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | Pot'-ak' || align="left" | nūjug-a || align="left" | upk'wa-∅-k'p'o || align="left" | pingketti-dö || align="left" | pöttü-tt-ö | |||
|- | |||
| align="left" | 1SG-ERG || align="left" | food-ABS || align="left" | buy-ACT.INF-TRANSL || align="left" | market-ALL || align="left" | go-ACT.INTR-PAST | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | ''I went to the market to buy food.'' | |||
|} | |||
Another way is to have a noun (or deverbal noun) followed by the postposition ''rangk'ōt''. | |||
=== Reported speech === | |||
To report what someone else has said, the construction '''X-ERG V (ökkü) QUOTE''' is used, where X is the source of information, V is a verb like say, tell, etc. (in active voice; with tense, aspect and mood as appropriate), and QUOTE is an independent clause. If the report is in direct speech, the particle ''ökkü'' will be used. If the report is in indirect speech, ''ökkü'' is not used, and the deictic center in the quote is changed to that of the speaker. | |||
=== Evidentiality === | === Evidentiality === | ||
Evidentiality can be expressed with a pronoun in the genitive case followed by one of three evidentiality verbs in the instructive infinitive form. The pronoun specifies | Evidentiality marking is not obligatory in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo, but what kind of evidence one has for the truthfulness of a statement can be expressed with a pronoun in the genitive case, followed by one of three evidentiality verbs in the instructive infinitive form. The pronoun specifies who is claiming something to be true, and the verb specifies the type of evidence. This construction precedes the main verb (or auxiliary + main verb construction). | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Evidentiality type | ! Evidentiality type | ||
! Morphology | ! Morphology | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Inferential || '''PRON''' t'yamchyōt | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Reportative || '''PRON''' kwetwüt | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Direct knowledge || '''(PRON)''' k'ofōk'ōt | ||
|} | |||
The inferential means that the statement is something that has been witnessed, and reportative is used for hearsay evidence. The direct knowledge evidential is used about any other evidence, including non-visual sensory. The dirent knowledge evidential can also be used impersonally, which is marked by the absense of a pronoun. The impersonal direct knowledge can have the meaning "they say that..." without any clarifications of who "they" are, or it can have the meaning that something is supposed to be common knowledge, "anyone knows it". All second person evidentials are very seldomly used; usually they occur in questions and sometimes when arguing against someone who claims to not have known a certain thing. The second person singular pronoun can be, and is usually, replaced by the name of the adressee in genitive case. | |||
{| | |||
! align="left" | P'oga-g-a || align="left" | pot'ya-t || align="left" | k'ofōk'-ōt || align="left" | ōno || align="left" | tōtk'yu-tto-∅ | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | align="left" | pig-PL-ABS || align="left" | 1SG-GEN || align="left" | know-INSTR.INF || align="left" | NEG || align="left" | fly-INTR-HAB | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | colspan="5" | ''As far as I know, pigs don't fly.'' | ||
| | |} | ||
| | |||
|- | {| | ||
| | ! align="left" | Pot'ya-du || align="left" | mōllussan || align="left" | p'ot'ya-t || align="left" | kwet-wüt || align="left" | ōno-tto-ng || align="left" | udi-∅ | ||
|- | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | align="left" | 1SG-ADE || align="left" | horse || align="left" | 2SG-GEN || align="left" | hear-INSTR.INF || align="left" | NEG-INTR-PRS || be-INF | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | colspan="6" | ''As you have heard, I do not have a horse.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
= Lexicon = | = Lexicon = | ||
== San words == | |||
Some adjectives and some nouns ends with the suffix ''-(s)san'' or ''-(s)sen''. In adjectives it is usually present because of word derivation. In nouns it may occur due to derivation, but sometimes it just does not have any specific meaning. In various kinds of suffixation, the san words usually inflect slightly differently than other words. | |||
== Compounds == | |||
In endocentric compounds, the head is the last word of the compound. All but the last words in a compound have the following characteristics: | |||
*Verbs can only appear in non-final forms | |||
*Nouns sometimes carry a case that the final word in the compound calls for. But nouns in some compounds have the genitive case for no particular reason. | |||
*The [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#-san words|-(s)san or -(s)sen suffix]] is deleted. | |||
*Some words have a special compound form, see [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Derivation|Derivation]] below. | |||
== Derivation == | == Derivation == | ||
Unless otherwise stated, the suffix in [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#San words|san words]] is deleted before one of the derivational suffixes below are added. When san words are treated differently, what the whole end of the word turns into is shown. So for example ''mōllussan'' (horse) with the suffix ''-ballossan'' (see ''-ballossan'' below) becomes ''mōlluspallossan'' (horse-like), but with the suffix ''-kkut'' it just becomes ''mōllukkut'' (horseless). | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Affix | ! Affix | ||
| Line 1,011: | Line 1,673: | ||
| hütwūt-- || Redoing an action || kōngk'utsa - tell → hütwūt-kōngk'utsa - renarrate | | hütwūt-- || Redoing an action || kōngk'utsa - tell → hütwūt-kōngk'utsa - renarrate | ||
|- | |- | ||
| p'ada-- || Do X in secret || | | ōsya-- || The opposite of the action || p'ūjucha - let good things happen to others → ōsya-p'ūjucha - not let good things happen to others | ||
|- | |||
| p'ada-- || Do X in secret || kwettödi - listen → p'ada-kwettödi - eavesdrop | |||
|- | |- | ||
| unno-- || Miss doing X || ap'sūja - shoot → unno-ap'sūja - shoot and miss | | unno-- || Miss doing X || ap'sūja - shoot → unno-ap'sūja - shoot and miss | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">mk'wa</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">mk'we</span><sup>1</sup> || Diminishes the intensity of an action, or makes it momentane || kakp'utsa - look → kakp'umk'wa - glance <br> millūgūttö - bark → millūgūmk'we - bark once | | -<span style="color:Red">mk'wa</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">mk'we</span><sup>1</sup> || Diminishes the intensity of an action, or makes it momentane || kakp'utsa - look → kakp'umk'wa - glance <br> millūgūttö - bark → millūgūmk'we - bark once | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Verb → noun | ! colspan="3" | Verb → noun | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -bu || Place where X is done || t'yamk'ya - show → t'yamk'yabu - stage | | -bu || Place where X is done (derived word often has [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''flat'') || t'yamk'ya - show → t'yamk'yabu - stage | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -būp<sup>1</sup> || A simple deverbal noun, usually used about actions that take some time to complete || kōngk'utsa - tell → kōngk'ubūp - story | | -būp<sup>1</sup> || A simple deverbal noun, usually used about actions that take some time to complete (derived word often has [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''abstract'') || kōngk'utsa - tell → kōngk'ubūp - story | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">gō</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kwü</span> || Device that performs X || kunglakka - substitute (V.) → kunglagō - substitute (N.) <br> | | -<span style="color:Red">gō</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kwü</span><sup>1</sup> || Device that performs X || kunglakka - substitute (V.) → kunglagō - substitute (N.) <br> ködūji - float → ködūkwü - floating device | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ha</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">he</span><sup>1</sup> || Doer of X || kyot' | | -<span style="color:Red">ha</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">he</span><sup>1</sup> || Doer of X ([[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''people'') || kyot'sōya - bathe → kyot'sōha - bather <br> ihikködi - think → ihikköhe - thinker | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ofu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öfu</span> || Noun somehow related to the verb || | | -<span style="color:Red">ofu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öfu</span> || Noun somehow related to the verb || ok'yu - sprout → ok'ofu - spore <br> mönekkue - throw → mönekköfu - dump | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ot</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öt</span><sup>1</sup> || Tool used for doing X || kūt' | | -<span style="color:Red">ot</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öt</span><sup>1</sup> || Tool used for doing X || kūt'kōna - traverse → kūt'kot - vehicle <br> swügutsöche - sting → swügutsöt - stinger | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ōt'pa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wüt'pe</span> || Result of verb || t'yamk'ya - show (V.) → t'yamk'ōt'pa - show (N.) <br> | | -<span style="color:Red">ōt'pa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wüt'pe</span> || Result of verb (derived word often has [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''abstract'')|| t'yamk'ya - show (V.) → t'yamk'ōt'pa - show (N.) <br> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">pya</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">pye</span><sup>1</sup> || Default verb to noun derivation || | | -<span style="color:Red">pya</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">pye</span><sup>1</sup> || Default verb to noun derivation || ōtyu - live → ōpya - life <br> kūjudi - die → kūjupye - death | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -tk'u<sup>1</sup> || Deverbal noun which implies of some kind of large occurrence || ūpkutsa - believe → ūpkutk'u - religion | | -tk'u<sup>1</sup> || Deverbal noun which implies of some kind of large occurrence || ūpkutsa - believe → ūpkutk'u - religion | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">tta</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">tte</span><sup>1</sup> || Deverbal form of sound verb || mongt'ūtto - neigh → mongt'ūtta - neighing <br> millūgūttö - bark → millūgūtte - barking | | -<span style="color:Red">tta</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">tte</span><sup>1</sup> || Deverbal form of sound verb (derived word will have [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''abstract'') || mongt'ūtto - neigh → mongt'ūtta - neighing <br> millūgūttö - bark → millūgūtte - barking | ||
|- | |||
| -u || Single instance of an act || tōtk'yu - fly → tōtk'u - flight | |||
|- | |||
| -ū || Deverbal form of frequentative verbs || tahokkadu - sort → tahokkadū - sorting | |||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | -<span style="color:Red">ūjō</span><sup>1</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ūjwü</span><sup>1</sup> || Collective deverbal noun (derived word will have [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''collective'') || kūt'kōna - traverse → kūt'kūjō - procession <br> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="3" | Verb → adjective | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red"> | | -<span style="color:Red">ossan</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">össen</span> || Someone or something that does X, an action that spreads out over time || k'ofōk'yu - know → k'ofōk'ossan - aware <br> | ||
|- | |||
| colspan="3" | See also [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Participles|Participles]], which are the usual way verbs are turned into adjective-like words | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Noun → verb | ! colspan="3" | Noun → verb | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">kka</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kke</span> || Default noun to verb derivation || pwado - paint (N.) → pwadokka - paint (V.) <br> sillegi - patch (N.) → sillegikke - patch (V.) | | -<span style="color:Red">kka</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">ska</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kke</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">ske</span>) || Default noun to verb derivation || pwado - paint (N.) → pwadokka - paint (V.) <br> sillegi - patch (N.) → sillegikke - patch (V.) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Blue">k'ye</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">k'ya</span> || Make into X, or add X || k'aido - wind → k'aidok'ya - ventilate; fan | | -<span style="color:Blue">k'ye</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">sk'ye</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Red">k'ya</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">sk'ya</span>) || Make into X, or add X || kikku - roof → kikkuk'ye - add a roof to a building <br> k'aido - wind → k'aidok'ya - ventilate; fan | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">k' | | -<span style="color:Red">k'yoya</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">sk'yoya</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">k'yöye</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">sk'yöye</span>) || Become X || pwa - earth → pwak'yoya - decompose <br> swe - tree → swek'yöye - become numb (literally "turn into wood") | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">( | | -<span style="color:Red">(ō)pk'wa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(wü)pk'we</span> || Hunt or collect something edible || kada - fish (N.) → kadapk'wa - fish (V.) <br> sungkitti - carrot → sungkittipk'we - pick carrots | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">utsocha</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">utsöche</span> || Do something using X || rappanga - hammer (N.) → rappangutsocha - hammer (V.) <br> mefögi - sand (N.) → mefögutsöche - sand (V.) | | -<span style="color:Red">utsocha</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">ssutsocha</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">utsöche</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">ssutsöche</span>) || Do something using X || rappanga - hammer (N.) → rappangutsocha - hammer (V.) <br> mefögi - sand (N.) → mefögutsöche - sand (V.) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Noun → noun | ! colspan="3" | Noun → noun | ||
| Line 1,067: | Line 1,735: | ||
| allu-- || Open, bare || pōngo - sea → allu-bōngo - open sea | | allu-- || Open, bare || pōngo - sea → allu-bōngo - open sea | ||
|- | |- | ||
| chūföt'-- || Double || ittup - portion → chūföt'-ittup - double portion | | chūföt'-- || Double (derived word will have [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''pair'') || ittup - portion → chūföt'-ittup - double portion | ||
|- | |- | ||
| hyat'ko-- || After || kunglakkōt'pa - compensation → hyat'ko-gunglakkōt'pa - compensation afterwards | | hyat'ko-- || After || kunglakkōt'pa - compensation → hyat'ko-gunglakkōt'pa - compensation afterwards | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | ingke-- || Arch-X || ronnadassan - enemy → ingke-lonnadassan - arch-enemy | ||
|- | |||
| kōpko-- || Middle || p'ungpo - finger → kōpko-p'ungpo - middle finger | |||
|- | |- | ||
| kōt'k'a-- || Yellow || rüpk'üngüge - white wagtail → kōt'k'a-rüpk'üngüge - yellow wagtail | | kōt'k'a-- || Yellow || rüpk'üngüge - white wagtail → kōt'k'a-rüpk'üngüge - yellow wagtail | ||
| Line 1,078: | Line 1,748: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| k'aga-- || Back || ullo - door → k'aga-ullo - back door | | k'aga-- || Back || ullo - door → k'aga-ullo - back door | ||
|- | |||
| k'ōgu-- || Artificial || p'yu - reason → k'ōgu-p'yu - pretext | |||
|- | |- | ||
| k'yayop-- || Full || kwe - moon → k'yayop-kwe - full moon | | k'yayop-- || Full || kwe - moon → k'yayop-kwe - full moon | ||
|- | |- | ||
| mūjessū-- || Top || p'ūjungapk'yabūp - performance → mūjessū-p'ūjungapk'yabūp - top performance | |||
| mūjessū-- || Top || p' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| nūpku-- || Brown || tōmk'o - leaf → nūpku- | | nūpku-- || Brown || tōmk'o - leaf → nūpku-dōmk'o - brown autumn leaf | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ogo-- || Forever || k'at'lo - winter → ogo-k'at'lo → neverending winter | | ogo-- || Forever || k'at'lo - winter → ogo-k'at'lo → neverending winter | ||
| Line 1,091: | Line 1,761: | ||
| okp'ō-- || Self || sökku - betrayal → okp'ō-zökku - self-deception | | okp'ō-- || Self || sökku - betrayal → okp'ō-zökku - self-deception | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ōkkū-- || Front || hat'kak - legs → ōkkū-hat'kak - | | ōkkū-- || Front || hat'kak - legs → ōkkū-hat'kak - forelegs | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ōk'ya-- || Remote || | | ōk'ya-- || Remote || | ||
| Line 1,102: | Line 1,772: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ōzhu-- || Outer || p'ollū - side → ōzhu-p'ollū - outside | | ōzhu-- || Outer || p'ollū - side → ōzhu-p'ollū - outside | ||
|- | |||
| pūpk'a-- || Black || pigingi - sausage → pūpk'a-bigingi - [[Wikipedia:Mustamakkara|black sausage]] | |||
|- | |- | ||
| p'ada-- || Secret || pūngma - murder → p'ada-būngma - assassination | | p'ada-- || Secret || pūngma - murder → p'ada-būngma - assassination | ||
|- | |||
| p'aing-- || Large || sōngmō - family → p'aing-sōngmō - large family | |||
|- | |- | ||
| p'ollū-- || Side || hugo - river → p'ollū-hugo - tributary | | p'ollū-- || Side || hugo - river → p'ollū-hugo - tributary | ||
| Line 1,110: | Line 1,784: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| p'otto-- || Blue || syonyupk'wo - tail → p'otto-syonyupk'wo - red-flanked bluetail | | p'otto-- || Blue || syonyupk'wo - tail → p'otto-syonyupk'wo - red-flanked bluetail | ||
|- | |- | ||
| p'yonghya-- || Back, remote || p'ōnūkkū - area → p'yonghya-p'ōnūkkū - place in the sticks | | p'yonghya-- || Back, remote || p'ōnūkkū - area → p'yonghya-p'ōnūkkū - place in the sticks | ||
| Line 1,123: | Line 1,793: | ||
| rat'ku-- || White || mallo - shark → rat'ku-mallo - great white shark | | rat'ku-- || White || mallo - shark → rat'ku-mallo - great white shark | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ronnōng-- || Green || | | ronnōng-- || Green || kaplofu - plant → ronnōng-kaplofu - flowerless plant with leaves | ||
|- | |- | ||
| segū-- || Small || nūjuga - food → segū-nūjuga - snack | | segū-- || Small ([[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''small'') || nūjuga - food → segū-nūjuga - snack | ||
|- | |- | ||
| sōngūp-- || Basic || k'ofōk'u - knowledge → sōngūp-k'ofōk'u - basic knowledge | | sōngūp-- || Basic || k'ofōk'u - knowledge → sōngūp-k'ofōk'u - basic knowledge | ||
|- | |||
| sutyo-- || Many || k'ofōha - sage → sutyo-k'ofōha - polymath | |||
|- | |- | ||
| sūjudo-- || Half || kwe - moon → sūjudo-kwe - half-moon | | sūjudo-- || Half || kwe - moon → sūjudo-kwe - half-moon | ||
|- | |- | ||
| sūtta-- || Red || notk'a - chest → sūtta-notk'a - robin | | sūtta-- || Red || notk'a - chest → sūtta-notk'a - robin | ||
| Line 1,139: | Line 1,809: | ||
| tyanno-- || Near || k'ūllaip - future → tyanno-k'ūllaip - near future | | tyanno-- || Near || k'ūllaip - future → tyanno-k'ūllaip - near future | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ūp'so-- || Closed || p'ūjudo - intestine → ūp'so-p'ūjudo - | | ūp'so-- || Closed || p'ūjudo - intestine → ūp'so-p'ūjudo - appendix | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | yotya-- || Upper, top || sūjudo - half → yotya-zūjudo - topside | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">da</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">de</span> || Place associated with X || | | -<span style="color:Red">da</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">de</span> || Place associated with X (derived word often has [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''flat'') || jōttu - agricultural people → jōttuda - cultivated land | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">dallossan</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">dellössen</span> || Person from X || Kunnu-lūjungo - Kunnu-lūjungo → Kunnu-lūjungodallossan - Kunnu-lūjungoan <br> | | -<span style="color:Red">dallossan</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">stallossan</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">dellössen</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">stellössen</span>) || Person from X ([[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''people'') || Kunnu-lūjungo - Kunnu-lūjungo → Kunnu-lūjungodallossan - Kunnu-lūjungoan <br> mönekköfu - dump → mönekköfudellössen - person living in a dump | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Blue">gi</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">gu</span> || Diminutive form || tap'so - pond → tap'sogu - puddle | | -<span style="color:Blue">gi</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">gu</span> || Diminutive form (derived word often has [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''small'' or ''round'') || sungkitti - carrot → sungkittigi - small carrot <br> tap'so - pond → tap'sogu - puddle | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">gō</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kwü</span> || Small thing with Xs || p'ūjuda - salt → p'ūjudagō - food preserved by salting <br> sede - pipe → sedekwü - hemp-nettle | | -<span style="color:Red">gō</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">skō</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">kwü</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">skwü</span>) || Small thing with Xs (derived word often has [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''small'' or ''round'') || p'ūjuda - salt → p'ūjudagō - food preserved by salting <br> sede - pipe → sedekwü - hemp-nettle | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -gu || Place with lots of Xs, collective X, or something associated with X || zap'zū - bamboo → zap'zūgu - bamboo thicket | | -gu || Place with lots of Xs, collective X, or something associated with X ([[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''collective'') || zap'zū - bamboo → zap'zūgu - bamboo thicket | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">(k)kang</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(k)keng</span> || Female X || p'atkango - hero → p'atkangokkang - heroine <br> sisse - priest → sissekkeng - priestess | | -<span style="color:Red">(k)kang</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(k)keng</span> || Female X ([[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''people'') || p'atkango - hero → p'atkangokkang - heroine <br> sisse - priest → sissekkeng - priestess | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">(ō)ngo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(wü)ngö</span> || Tool or person that uses X || t'waba - face → t'wabango - mask <br> tillūkki - raft → tillūkkingö - ferry man | | -<span style="color:Red">(ō)ngo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(wü)ngö</span> || Tool or person ([[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''people'') that uses X || t'waba - face → t'wabango - mask <br> tillūkki - raft → tillūkkingö - ferry man | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ofu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue"> | | -<span style="color:Red">ofu</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">ssofu</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öfu</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">ssöfu</span>) || Thing with Xs || uppa - part → uppofu - share | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">(o)pk'u</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(ö)pk'u</span> || Place with collection of X || t'wassūngo - neighbor → t'wassūngopk'u - neighborhood | | -<span style="color:Red">(o)pk'u</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">sk'u</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(ö)pk'u</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">sk'u</span>) || Place with collection of X (derived word will have [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''collective'') || t'wassūngo - neighbor → t'wassūngopk'u - neighborhood | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">(o)tku</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(ö)tku</span> || Natural features that is like X || k'appō - plane → k'appōtku - plain | | -<span style="color:Red">(o)tku</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(ö)tku</span> || Natural features that is like X || k'appō - plane → k'appōtku - plain | ||
| Line 1,165: | Line 1,835: | ||
! colspan ="3" | Noun → adjective | ! colspan ="3" | Noun → adjective | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ap'zo-NOUN-ossan || Both || kyappo - hand → ap'zo-kyappossan - ambi-dextrous | | ap'zo--NOUN-ossan || Both || kyappo - hand → ap'zo-kyappossan - ambi-dextrous | ||
|- | |- | ||
| sutyo-NOUN-X<sup> | | sutyo--NOUN-X<sup>2</sup> || Many || allofu - marriage → sutyo-allofossan - polygamistic | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ballossan</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">bellössen</span> || Resembling X || kada - fish → kadaballossan - fishlike <br> k'wik'wö - girl → k'wik'wöbellössen - girly | | -<span style="color:Red">ballossan</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">spallossan</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">bellössen</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">spellössen</span>) || Resembling X || kada - fish → kadaballossan - fishlike <br> k'wik'wö - girl → k'wik'wöbellössen - girly | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Blue">dessen</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">dassan</span> || X-like, endowed with X, time, or measure || | | -<span style="color:Blue">dessen</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">dassan</span> || X-like, endowed with X, time, or measure || set'kū - dot → set'kūdessen - dotted <br> kutsūnga - cupped hand → kutsūngadassan - handful | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Blue">dutsessen</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">dutsassan</span> || Often X-like || | | -<span style="color:Blue">dutsessen</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">dutsassan</span> || Often X-like || millūgūtte - barking → millūgūttedutsessen - often barking | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">gap</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">gep</span> || Equipped with X || mūjudo - worry → mūjudogap - | | -<span style="color:Red">gap</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">gep</span> || Equipped with X || mūjudo - worry → mūjudogap - worried <br> kūttefi - honor → kūttefigep - honorable | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -kkut || Lacking X || swe - tree → swekkut - treeless | | -kkut || Lacking X || swe - tree → swekkut - treeless | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">oppa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öppe</span> || Something that produces X || p'akku - harvest → p'akkoppa - bountyful harvest <br> k' | | -<span style="color:Red">oppa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">öppe</span> || Something that produces X || p'akku - harvest → p'akkoppa - bountyful harvest <br> k'izu - kill (N.) → k'izöppe - someone with many kills | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ossan</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">össen</span> || Regular noun to adjective derivation || odu - joy → odossan - happy <br> mefögi - sand → mefögössen - sandy | | -<span style="color:Red">ossan</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">össen</span> || Regular noun to adjective derivation || odu - joy → odossan - happy <br> mefögi - sand → mefögössen - sandy | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">zok'ossan</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">zök'össen</span> || Something that contains a substance || kūt'k'a - gold → kūt'k'azok'ossan - something (e.g. a river) that contains gold <br> mefögi - sand → mefögizök'össen - something (e.g. mud) that contains sand | | -<span style="color:Red">zok'ossan</span> (-<span style="color:Red">sok'ossan</span>, san word → -<span style="color:Red">ssok'ossan</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">zök'össen</span> (-<span style="color:Blue">sök'össen</span>, san word → -<span style="color:Blue">ssök'össen</span>) || Something that contains a substance || kūt'k'a - gold → kūt'k'azok'ossan - something (e.g. a river) that contains gold <br> mefögi - sand → mefögizök'össen - something (e.g. mud) that contains sand | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ssan</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ssen</span> || Made from X || kūt'k'a - gold → kūt'k'assan - golden <br> swe - tree → swessen - wooden | | -<span style="color:Red">ssan</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ssen</span> || Made from X || kūt'k'a - gold → kūt'k'assan - golden <br> swe - tree → swessen - wooden | ||
| Line 1,189: | Line 1,859: | ||
! colspan="3" | Noun → adverb | ! colspan="3" | Noun → adverb | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Blue">ekkillet</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">akkullat</span> || From an X point of view || | | -<span style="color:Blue">ekkillet</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">ssekkillet</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Red">akkullat</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">ssakkullat</span>) || From an X point of view || <br> jōttu - agricultural people → jōttakkullat - from agricultural people's point of view | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Blue">gillet</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">gullat</span> || Locative situative adverb (involving two things in relation to each other) || | | -<span style="color:Blue">gillet</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">gullat</span> || Locative situative adverb (involving two things in relation to each other) || t'ūngki - corner → t'ūngkigillet - corner-to-corner <br> kaplu - face → kaplugullat - face-to-face | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Blue">(k)killet</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">(k)kullat</span> || Manner or position || p'ollū - side → p'ollūkkullat - sideways | | -<span style="color:Blue">(k)killet</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">(k)kullat</span> || Manner or position || tönegebūp - play → tönegebūpkillet - not seriously <br> p'ollū - side → p'ollūkkullat - sideways | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Adjective → verb | ! colspan="3" | Adjective → verb | ||
| Line 1,199: | Line 1,869: | ||
| -∅ || Be X || sūttallossan - red → sūttallossan - be red <br> tübet → tübet - be warm | | -∅ || Be X || sūttallossan - red → sūttallossan - be red <br> tübet → tübet - be warm | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">(p)k'wa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(p)k'we</span> || Make into X || sūttallossan - red → | | -<span style="color:Red">(p)k'wa</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">sk'wa</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">(p)k'we</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">sk'we</span>) || Make into X || sūttallossan - red → sūttallosk'wa - redden <br> tübet - warm (Adj.) → tübetk'we - warm (V.) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Adjective → noun | ! colspan="3" | Adjective → noun | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -∅ || Person with X quality || nogap - rich → nogap - rich person | | -∅ (no change to san words either) || Person with X quality (derived word will have [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''people'') || nogap - rich (Adj.) → nogap - rich person | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">aip</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ip</span> || The X quality || sūttallossan - red → | | -<span style="color:Red">aip</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">ssaip</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ip</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">ssip</span>) || The X quality (derived word will have [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''abstract'') || sūttallossan - red → sūttallossaip - redness <br> tübet - warm → tübedip - warmth | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ūngo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ūngö</span> || Person who is being X || tallopka - lazy → tallopkūngo - lazy person | | -<span style="color:Red">ūngo</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ūngö</span> || Person who is being X (derived word will usually have [[Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo#Numeral classifiers|num. clf.]] ''people'' || tallopka - lazy → tallopkūngo - lazy person <br> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Adjective → adjective | ! colspan="3" | Adjective → adjective | ||
| Line 1,213: | Line 1,883: | ||
| kutk'yunga-- || Opposing force || k'ūjulla - productive → kutk'yunga-k'ūjulla - counter-productive | | kutk'yunga-- || Opposing force || k'ūjulla - productive → kutk'yunga-k'ūjulla - counter-productive | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ogo-- || Forever || | | ogo-- || Forever || ratma - old → ogo-ratma → really, really old | ||
|- | |- | ||
| okp'ō-- || Self || k'ūnnoppa - destructive → okp'ō-k'ūnnoppa - self-destructive | | okp'ō-- || Self || k'ūnnoppa - destructive → okp'ō-k'ūnnoppa - self-destructive | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ryamya-- || Little || tūbossan - snowy → ryamya-dūbossan - | | ōsya-- || Opposite quality || p'ōt'lya - clear → ōsya-p'ōt'lya - unclear | ||
|- | |||
| ryamya-- || Little || tūbossan - snowy → ryamya-dūbossan - only little snowy | |||
|- | |- | ||
| tyasso-- || Thoroughly || ryangokkak'p'o k'ūttūk - dyed → tyasso-lyangokkak'p'o k'ūttūk - thoroughly dyed | | tyasso-- || Thoroughly || ryangokkak'p'o k'ūttūk - dyed → tyasso-lyangokkak'p'o k'ūttūk - thoroughly dyed | ||
| Line 1,223: | Line 1,895: | ||
| ūp'so-- || Completely || myūdū - crazy → ūp'so-myūdū - absolutely crazy | | ūp'so-- || Completely || myūdū - crazy → ūp'so-myūdū - absolutely crazy | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Blue">dutsessen</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">dutsassan</span> || Someone or something that is often X-like || mochap - slow → mochaptutsassan - often slow <br> | | -<span style="color:Blue">dutsessen</span> <br> -<span style="color:Red">dutsassan</span> || Someone or something that is often X-like || negettüzessen - broken → negettüzedutsessen - often broken <br> mochap - slow → mochaptutsassan - often slow | ||
|- | |||
| -mku (san word → -<span style="color:Red">samku</span>, -<span style="color:Blue">semku</span>) || Diminishes the quality || mochap - slow → mochamku - slowish | |||
|- | |||
| -<span style="color:Red">ossan</span><sup>3</sup> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">össen</span><sup>3</sup> || Tendency to be like X (only used on present participles) || k'allossūlla - bending → k'allossūllossan - flexible <br> negefak'p'ö k'ūlle - getting broken → negefak'p'ö k'ūllössen - fragile | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="3" | Adjective → adverb | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red"> | | -<span style="color:Red">pk'o</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Red">sap'ko</span>) <br> -<span style="color:Blue">pk'ö</span> (san word → -<span style="color:Blue">sepk'ö</span>) || Regular adjective to adverb derivation || mochap - slow → mochapk'o - slowly <br> tūjutk'udessen - natural → tūjutk'udessepk'ö - naturally | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red"> | | -<span style="color:Red">wa</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">we</span> || Used on a few adjectives to turn them into adverbs of manner || mot'hallossan - silent → mot'harwa - silently <br> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | | ! colspan="3" | Adverb → verb | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red"> | | -<span style="color:Red">ōkka</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">wükke</span> || Derives an intransitive verb meaning that something happens in a specific way || mat'ko (in half) → mat'kōkka (break apart) <br> öttöbüt (more) → öttöpwükke (become more) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Numeral → noun | ! colspan="3" | Numeral → noun | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color:Red">ofu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue"> | | -<span style="color:Red">ofu</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ssöfu</span> || Shape with X number of sides (2D or 3D) || kut'pō - three → kut'pofu - triangle <br> kwibössen - ten → *kwibössöfu<sup>4</sup> - decagon | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" | Numeral → adverb | ! colspan="3" | Numeral → adverb | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -<span style="color: | | -<span style="color:Red">akkullat</span> <br> -<span style="color:Blue">ssekkillet</span> || Xs of || p'akka - one hundred → p'akkakkullat - hundreds of <br> kwibössen - ten → kwibössekkillet - tens of | ||
|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup>The last syllable is deleted before this suffix is added, unless the last syllable consisted of a monosyllabic derivational suffix.<br> | <sup>1</sup>The last syllable is deleted before this suffix is added, unless the last syllable consisted of a monosyllabic derivational suffix.<br> | ||
<sup>2 | <sup>2</sup>The X stands for any derivational suffix that turns a noun into an adjective.<br> | ||
<sup>3</sup>In case of the present passive participle, this suffix is added to the auxiliary verb.<br> | |||
<sup> | <sup>4</sup>Theoretical word. | ||
<sup> | [[category: conlangs]] | ||
Latest revision as of 08:38, 27 June 2020
| Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo | |
|---|---|
| Pronounced: | [-kunːuluːdʒuŋːo] |
| Timeline and Universe: | |
| Species: | Human |
| Spoken: | |
| Total speakers: | |
| Writing system: | none (the speakers are illiterate; this article uses a transliteration using the Latin alphabet) |
| Genealogy: | |
| Typology | |
| Morphology: | Agglutinative |
| Morphosyntax: | Ergative |
| Word order: | SOV |
| Credits | |
| Creator: | Qwynegold |
| Created: | April 2010 |
Phonology
Phoneme inventory
| Consonants | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilabial | Labiod. | Alveolar | Post-alv. | Velar | Glottal | |||||||||||
| Nasal | /m/ | /n/ | /ŋ/ | |||||||||||||
| Plain Plosive | /p/ | [b] | /t/ | [d] | /k/ | [ɡ] | ||||||||||
| Aspirated Plosive | /pʰ/ | /tʰ/ | /kʰ/ | |||||||||||||
| Fricative | /f/ | /s/ | /z/ | /ʃ/ | /ʒ/ | /h/ | ||||||||||
| Affricate | /ts/ | /tʃ/ | /dʒ/ | |||||||||||||
| Rhotic | /*r/1 | |||||||||||||||
| Lateral Approximant | [l] | |||||||||||||||
1The exact quality of the rhotic is unknown.
There are long/geminated versions of the consonants /n, p, t, k, s, r/ (/rː/ is phonetically [lː]) that are very common. The consonants /m, pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, f, ʃ, ts/ may also be long/geminated, but they are very rare. Geminated /ts/ has two contrastive realizations: /tsts/ and /tːs/.
| Monophthongs | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Front | Back | |||||||||
| High | /i/ | /y/ | /u/ | /uː/ | ||||||
| Mid | /e/ | /ø/ | /o/ | /oː/ | ||||||
| Low | /ɑ/ | |||||||||
| Diphthongs | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Front-Front | Front-Back | Back-Front | Back-Back | |||||||
| High | /jy/ | /ju/ | /juː/ | /wi/ | /wy/ | /wuː/ | ||||
| Mid | /je/ | /jø/ | /jo/ | /joː/ | /we/ | /ue/ | /wø/ | /wo/ | ||
| Opening Low | /jɑ/ | /wɑ/ | ||||||||
| Closing Low | /ɑi/ | /ɑu/ | ||||||||
Allophony
- The velar nasal is long if intervocalic, and short otherwise.
- The short unvoiced plosives are voiced if intervocalic.
- The liquid is a rhotic at the beginning of a word and before /w/, but [l] in other positions.
- /jy/ and /jø/ only appear in a few suffixes as the counterparts of /jo/ resp. /joː/ due to vowel harmony.
Phonological constraints
The syllable structure of Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo is (O)V(C) where O is any consonant but /ŋ/, C is any consonant other than {/z, ʒ, h, ts, tʃ/}, and V is any single vowel or diphthong. /j/ and /w/ do not count as consonants, but as a part of a diphthong.
The geminated or long consonant can only appear intervocalically and it is bisyllabic. That is, the onset of the consonant belongs to the same syllable as the preceding vowel, while the release of the consonant belongs to the same syllable as the vowel following it.
Morphological processes
- When a suffix that begins with a long consonant, a voiced plosive, or /z/ is added to a word that ends with a consonant, the initial consonant of the suffix becomes a short unvoiced consonant. For this reason, in the lists of suffixes in this article, the first consonant letter representing a long consonant is put in parenthesis (e.g. -(t)to). The voicing change is not indicated, however.
- When two aspirated consonants are adjacent, or when a plain plosive is followed by its aspirated version, those two turn into a long aspirated plosive.
- When a suffix changes the last vowel of a word, diphthongs count as one vowel. So for example the singular first person pronoun pot'ya with the ergative suffix -ak' is pot'ak' and not *pot'yak'. An exception is if the dipthong begins with /j/ or /w/ which is preceded by a vowel. In that case the /j/ or /w/ is retained.
Vowel harmony
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has front-back vowel harmony. In the list below front vowels have been marked with blue and back vowels with red. There are also neutral vowels, which are: /u, uː, ju, juː, wuː/ <u, ū, yu, yū, wū>. Each suffix is by default front or back (unless it is neutral), and if the suffix is attached to a word of the opposite affinity, the vowels in the suffix will change according to this list. (Note that not all vowels make matching pairs; for example the opposite of /ue/ is /wo/, but the opposite of /wo/ is /wø/).
- /ɑ/ <a> → /e/ <e>
- /e/ <e> → /ɑ/ <a>
- /i/ <i> → /u/ <u>
- /o/ <o> → /ø/ <ö>
- /oː/ <ō> → /wy/ <wü>
- /ø/ <ö> → /o/ <o>
- /y/ <ü> → /u/ <u>
- /ɑi/ <ai> → /i/ <i>
- /ɑu/ <au> → /i/ <i>
- /ue/ <ue> → /wo/ <wo>
- /jɑ/ <ya> → /je/ <ye>
- /je/ <ye> → /jɑ/ <ya>
- /jo/ <yo> → /jø/ <yö>
- /joː/ <yō> → /jy/ <yü>
- /wɑ/ <wa> → /we/ <we>
- /we/ <we> → /wɑ/ <wa>
- /wi/ <wi> → /wuː/ <wū>
- /wo/ <wo> → /wø/ <wö>
- /wø/ <wö> → /wo/ <wo>
- /wy/ <wü> → /oː/ <ō>
The red and blue marking is used consistently throughout this article, so that suffixes that go with back vowel words are marked with red and suffixes that go with front vowel words are marked with blue. Whenever there are two versions of a suffix, the one that is presented first is used with neutral words.
Writing
The speakers of Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo had no writing system. The language is transliterated in this article with the Latin alphabet, as shown below.
A a, B b, Ch ch, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, K' k', L l, M m, N n, Ng ng, O o, Ō ō, Ö ö, P p, P' p', R r, S s, Sh sh, T t, T' t', Ts ts, U u, Ū ū, Ü ü, W w, Y y, Z z, Zh zh
| Letter | Pronunciation |
|---|---|
| A a | ɑ |
| B b | b |
| Ch ch | tʃ |
| D d | d |
| E e | e |
| F f | f |
| G g | ɡ |
| H h | h |
| I i | i |
| J j | dʒ |
| K k | k |
| K' k' | kʰ |
| L l | l |
| M m | m |
| N n | n |
| Ng ng | ŋ |
| O o | o |
| Ō ō | oː |
| Ö ö | ø |
| P p | p |
| P' p' | pʰ |
| R r | *r |
| S s | s |
| Sh sh | ʃ |
| T t | t |
| T' t' | tʰ |
| Ts ts | ts |
| U u | u |
| Ū ū | uː |
| Ü ü | y |
| W w | w |
| Y y | j |
| Z z | z |
| Zh zh | ʒ |
The voiced plosives and the lateral are represented in the romanization, even though they are not phonemic.
Long or geminated consonant are represented by doubling the consonant letter or digraph (so for example /kː/ is <kk> and /ʃː/ is <shsh>). But the apostrophe of the aspirated consonants is not duplicated (so for example /kʰː/ is <kk'>).
Grammar
Morphology
Verbs
Verbs in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo can be divided into several different groups. There are intransitive verbs that take one argument, a subject, and transitive verbs which take two arguments, subject and object. Intransitive verbs come in two varieties, A-intransitives which take an agent-like subject, and P-intransitives which take a patient-like subject.
There are stative and dynamic verbs. Dynamic verbs describe actions that typically are momentane or that involve movement of some kind, e.g. p'wacha (receive), tōtk'yu (fly). Stative verbs describe motionless actions or the state of something, for example opk'ūja (sit), mūzōng (be hungry). Adjectives may be zero-derived into verbs. These adjective-verbs are always stative.
There are also auxiliary verbs that carry some kind of grammatical meaning, and which are used together with other verbs.
Finite verbs
Voice and transitivity
In the following table, the affixes marked with blue go together with front vowel words, and the ones in red with back vowel words. If a word has only neutral vowels, the affix that stands first in the morphology column will be used.
| Voice | Morphology | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Active | -∅ | pot'ak' ubōtta p'yowochyang - I eat an apple pot'ak' tallūda kweding - I hear a song |
| Transitive | -∅ | |
| Intransitive | -(t)to -(t)tö |
pot'a p'yowochyattong - I eat pot'a kwedittöng - I hear |
| Passive | k'ūdi VERB-ttūk1 | ubōtta pot'yat k'ūdi p'yowottūk - an apple becomes eaten by me tallūda k'ūdi kwettūk - a song becomes heard |
| Causative | -k'ye1 -k'ya1 |
pot'ak' myatto kwek'yeng - I make him hear pot'ak' myatto ubōtta p'yowok'yang - I make him eat an apple |
| Passive-Causative | k'ūdi VERB-ttūkk'ye1 k'ūdi VERB-ttūkk'ya1 |
myadak' k'ūding kwettūkk'ye - he is made to hear pot'ak' ubōtta k'ūding p'yowottūkk'ya - I am made to eat an apple |
1The last syllable of the verb is deleted before this suffix is added.
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has explicit marking of intransitive verbs, while transitive verbs are unmarked. The intransitive marker is deleted if any voice other than active is used on the given verb. See the sections Transitives and Intransitives for more details.
The passive voice has similar uses as in English. It shifts focus from the agent to the patient, and it is often used for indicating that someone did something to the patient without asking for consent, or even outright against the patient's will, or that the patient succumbed to a situation that was not brought on by any sentient being. Another use for the passive is for turning a transitive verb into an intransitive while demoting the agent. For example negefa is an inherently transitive verb which means "break". Using the passive voice is the only way to make it an intransitive verb with the meaning that something gets broken, because using intransitive marking would have the meaning that someone breaks something (without telling what that "something" is).
The causative voice is used for marking that someone makes, lets or somehow causes someone else to do something. It can also be used for turning an agent-less intransitive verb into one that takes an agent as its argument. For example the word satwatto means burn, as in "the wood is burning". To express that someone burns something, the causative voice would be used. This verb can be used either intransitively, i.e. without a patient, or transitively (see Causatives for more information).
The passive-causative voice marks that someone is forcibly subjected to an action. The causer is dropped or demoted, while the causee (and possible patient) remain. See Passive-causatives for more information.
Tense and aspect
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has arguably three basic tenses (past, present and habitual); while the other tenses (remote past, future, remote future) and the three aspects (progressive, perfect and frequentative) are expressed periphrastically, through reduplication or through a combination of conjugation, periphrastic means and reduplication.
Stative verbs can not take the habitual tense, or perfect or progressive aspects.
The following table displays allowed combinations of tenses and aspects. The AI marks the place for the active intransitive suffix, C for the causative suffix, and the M for mood suffixes, if there are any. In constructions involving auxiliary verbs, the place of the main verb is marked with VERB. The main verb will have the active infinitive form.
Combining the passive voice with these verb forms is a bit complicated, so see Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo conjugation tables for how it is expressed together with any tense or aspect.
| Tense | Aspect | Morphology | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Remote Past | - | -AI/C-oXo1-M -AI/C-öXö1-M |
kallololo - dug a long time ago kwedödö - heard a long time ago |
| Past | - | -AI/C-o-M -AI/C-ö-M |
kallolo - dug kwedö - heard |
| Present | - | -AI/C-ng-M | kallorwang - digs kweding - hears |
| Future | - | k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C | k'ūdi kallorwa - will dig k'ūdi kwedi - will hear |
| Remote Future | - | k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C | k'ūdik'ūdi kallorwa - will dig in the far future k'ūdik'ūdi kwedi - will hear in the far future |
| Habitual | - | -AI/C-∅-M | kallorwa - usually digs kwedi - usually hears |
| Remote Past | Progressive | ut-AI-oXo1-M VERB-C-beppi2 ut-AI-oXo1-M VERB-C-bappu2 |
udodo kwebeppi - was hearing a long time ago udodo kallobappu - was digging a long time ago |
| Past | Progressive | ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-beppi2 ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-bappu2 |
udo kwebeppi - was hearing udo kallobappu - was digging |
| Present | Progressive | ut-AI-M VERB-C-beppi2 ut-AI-M VERB-C-bappu2 |
ut kwebeppi - is hearing ut kallobappu - is digging |
| Future | Progressive | k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-beppi2 k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-bappu2 |
k'ūdi kwebeppi - will be hearing k'ūdi kallobappu - will be digging |
| Remote Future | Progressive | k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-beppi2 k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-bappu2 |
k'ūdik'ūdi kwebeppi - will be hearing in the far future k'ūdik'ūdi kallobappu - will be digging in the far future |
| Remote Past | Perfect | ut-AI-oXo1-M VERB-C-ttūk2 | udodo kallottūk - had dug a long time ago udodo kwettūk - had heard long ago |
| Past | Perfect | ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-ttūk2 | udo kallottūk - had dug udo kwettūk - had heard |
| Present | Perfect | ut-AI-(o)ng-M VERB-C-ttūk2 | udong kallottūk - have dug udong kwettūk - have heard |
| Future | Perfect | k'ūdi-AI-ng-M VERB-C-ttūk2 | k'ūding kallottūk - will have dug k'ūding kwettūk - will have heard |
| Remote Future | Perfect | k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-ng-M VERB-C-ttūk2 | k'ūdik'ūding kallottūk - will have dug in the far future k'ūdik'ūding kwettūk - will have heard in the far future |
| Habitual | Perfect | ut-AI-M VERB-C-ttūk2 | ut kallottūk - have/had usually dug ut kwettūk - have/had usually heard |
| Remote Past | Frequentative | -AI/C-dödö-M -AI/C-dodo-M |
kwedidödö - repeatedly heard things long ago kallorwadodo - dug around long ago |
| Past | Frequentative | -AI/C-dö-M -AI/C-do-M |
kwedidö - repeatedly heard things kallorwado - dug around |
| Present | Frequentative | -AI/C-ding-M -AI/C-dung-M |
kwediding - repeatedly hear things kallorwadung - dig around |
| Future | Frequentative | k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-di k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-du |
k'ūdi kwedidi - will hear things repeatedly k'ūdi kallorwadu - will dig around |
| Remote Future | Frequentative | k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-di k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-du |
k'ūdik'ūdi kwedidi - will hear things repeatedly in the far future k'ūdik'ūdi kallorwadu - will dig around in the far future |
| Habitual | Frequentative | -AI/C-di-M -AI/C-du-M |
kwedidi - usually hears things repeatedly kallorwadu - usually digs around |
| Remote Past | Progressive-Frequentative | ut-AI-oXo1-M VERB-C-dibeppi ut-AI-oXo1-M VERB-C-dubappu |
udodo kwedidibeppi - was repeatedly hearing things long ago udodo kallorwadubappu - was digging around long ago |
| Past | Progressive-Frequentative | ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-dibeppi ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-dubappu |
udo kwedidibeppi - was repeatedly hearing things udo kallorwadubappu - was digging around |
| Present | Progressive-Frequentative | ut-AI-M VERB-C-dibeppi ut-AI-M VERB-C-dubappu |
ut kwedidibeppi - is repeatedly hearing things ut kallorwadubappu - is digging around |
| Future | Progressive-Frequentative | k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-dibeppi k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-dubappu |
k'ūdi kwedidibeppi - will be hearing things repeatedly k'ūdi kallorwadubappu - will be digging around |
| Remote Future | Progressive-Frequentative | k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-dibeppi k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-dubappu |
k'ūdik'ūdi kwedidibeppi - will be hearing things repeatedly in the future k'ūdik'ūdi kallorwadubappu - will be digging around in the far future |
| Remote Past | Perfect-Frequentative | ut-AI-oXo1-M VERB-C-dittūk ut-AI-oXo1-M VERB-C-duttūk |
udodo kwedidittūk - has heard things repeatedly long ago udodo kallorwaduttūk - has dug around long ago |
| Past | Perfect-Frequentative | ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-dittūk ut-AI-o-M VERB-C-duttūk |
udo kwedidittūk - has heard things repeatedly udo kallorwaduttūk - has dug around |
| Present | Perfect-Frequentative | ut-AI-(o)ng-M VERB-C-dittūk ut-AI-(o)ng-M VERB-C-duttūk |
udong kwedidittūk - have heard things repeatedly udong kallorwaduttūk - have dug around |
| Future | Perfect-Frequentative | k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-dittūk k'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-duttūk |
k'ūdi kwedidittūk - will have heard things repeatedly k'ūdi kallorwaduttūk - will have dug around |
| Remote Future | Perfect-Frequentative | k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-dittūk k'ūdik'ūdi-AI-M VERB-C-duttūk |
k'ūdik'ūdi kwedidittūk - will have heard things repeatedly in the far future k'ūdik'ūdi kallorwaduttūk - will have dug around in the far future |
| Habitual | Perfect-Frequentative | ut-AI-M VERB-C-dittūk ut-AI-M VERB-C-duttūk |
ut kwedidittūk - have/had usually heard things repeatedly ut kallorwaduttūk - have/had usually dug around |
1The X stands for a consonant that is the same as the previous consonant in the word.
2The previous syllable is deleted before this suffix is added, unless the previous syllable is the causative suffix.
The habitual, which is used for expressing that someone does something on regular basis, cannot be used together with any tense. It is usually understood to mean present tense, but if need be, one can specify past meaning with the adverb öttöt (before), and future meaning with the adverb allogau (intends to).
The frequentative can have the meaning of just doing something repeatedly, or doing something repeatedly and in several locations. For example myosyak'yattodung can either mean "to jump around", or "to jump up and down at the same spot".
Mood
| Mood | Morphology | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Energetic | -(s)sa -(s)se |
kallorwangsa - does dig too! kwedingse - does hear too! |
| Conditional | -(o)ppo -(ö)ppö |
kallorwappo - would dig kwedippö - would hear |
| Conditional-Energetic | -(o)ppossa -(ö)ppösse |
kallorwappossa - I wish someone would dig kwedippösse - I wish someone would hear |
| Hortative | -wat -wet |
kallorwat - let's dig kwetwet - let's hear |
| Hortative-Energetic | -watsa -wetse |
kallorwatsa - let's dig! kwetwetse - let's hear! |
| Imperative | deletion of last syllable | kallo - dig! kwe - hear! |
| Imperative-Energetic | deletion of last syllable + (s)sa deletion of last syllable + (s)se |
kallossa - you dig, allright? kwesse - would you hear? |
| Optative | -gaut -git |
kallorwagaut - may he/she dig kwedigit - may he/she hear |
| Optative-Energetic | -gautsa -gitse |
kallorwagautsa - may he/she dig! kwedigitse - may he/she hear! |
| Volitive | -auk -ik |
kallolauk - let him/her dig then kwedik - let it be heard then |
The energetic mood is used when expressing what oneself actually believes to be the case, despite of what anyone else thinks. It can be used together with any tense and aspect. The energetic mood combines with all other moods except volitive to form additional meanings.
The conditional is used for marking the "then" part of an "if...then" statement. But sometimes it is used on both the "if" and the "then" part simultaneously. The conditional can only be used together with the past and habitual tense. Any aspect together with past tense can be used however.
The combination of the conditional and energetic moods has two different uses. One means that one wishes current things to be in a certain way instead of how they are now. The other use means that one wishes for something to happen; either wishing it very intently, or being hopeful or optimistic about it happening. This mood can be used with the same tenses and aspects as the simple conditional.
The hortative denotes the meaning of "let's". No tense or aspect, except for the frequentative, can be used with the hortative. It can be used with any voice, except for the passive-causative.
Combining the hortative mood with the energetic adds a persuasive tone to the proposal made. It can be used together with the same tenses and aspects as the simple hortative.
The imperative mood is used for making commands. It is combined with the active or passive voice. It does not distinguish transitives and intransitives, with neither kind of verb getting any transitivity marking. The imperative mood is also not used together with any particular tense or aspect, except that it can be used with the frequentative. The adressee, which is optional, can be put in the beginning or end of the sentence in the vocative case. See Imperative sentences for more information on how to use the imperative mood.
Using the combination of imperative and energetic is paradoxically more polite than using the imperative alone. In this case, the energetic mood makes the statement more of a suggestion than a command. The same rules apply for the imperative-energetic as for the simple energetic regarding which other verb categories it can be combined with.
The optative can be used for expressing a wish in one of these cases:
- The wish is not up to any person to make come true, for example "may it not rain tomorrow".
- The wish is directed at someone who is not present and contactable at the time being, for example "may the king not raise the taxes again" said by someone who has never met, and probably never will meet, the king.
- The wish is dependent on a large group of people, like the society or mankind. As an example: "let's all work together to make the world a better place to live".
The optative can only be used together with the present and habitual tenses. Any aspect together with present tense is also allowed.
Together with the optative, the energetic has simply a more intensifying meaning. This can be used with the same tenses and aspects as the simple optative.
The volitive mood has two similar uses. One is used to express that one does not approve of, or like, the state of affairs, but reluctantly accepts it because nothing else can be done. The other use expresses that one does not really wish for something to happen, but lets it happen anyway because one cannot be bothered to do something about it. This mood can only be used together with the present simple, present progressive, present frequentative and habitual tenses.
Nonfinite verbs
Infinitives
In action nominal constructions, when the active form of any of the infinitives is used, any agent argument of that infinitive takes the genitive case and any patient argument gets either the genitive or the absolutive case (except for the deverbal noun where both arguments always get the genitive). With the passive forms of an infinitive, the patient gets the genitive case and the agent ablative case (including the deverbal noun).
In other kinds of constructions, the object of an infinitive gets absolutive case. For the simple infinitives, the object is placed before the finite verb. The deverbal nouns have other requirements though, see Deverbal nouns for the details.
| Type of infinitive | Morphology | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Active Infinitive | -∅ | p'yowochya - to eat kwedi - to hear |
| Passive Infinitive | k'ūdi VERB-ūk'p'o k'ūdi VERB-ūk'p'ö |
k'ūdi p'yowochūk'p'o - to become eaten k'ūdi kwedūk'p'ö - to become heard |
| Active Inessive infinitive | -öppi -oppu |
kwedöppi - when hearing p'yowochoppu - when eating |
| Passive Inessive infinitive | -ūk'p'o k'ūdöppi -ūk'p'ö k'ūdöppi |
p'yowochūk'p'o k'ūdöppi - when becoming eaten kwedūk'p'ö k'ūdöppi - when becoming heard |
| Active Instructive infinitive | -ōt -wüt |
p'yowochōt - by eating kwetwüt - by hearing |
| Passive Instructive infinitive | -ūk'p'o k'ūtwüt -ūk'p'ö k'ūtwüt |
p'yowochūk'p'o k'ūtwüt - by becoming eaten kwedūk'p'ö k'ūtwüt - by becoming heard |
| Active Adverb infinitive | -ba1-C2 -be1-C2 |
p'yowobappu - in the middle of eating kwebeppi - in the middle of hearing |
| Passive Adverb infinitive | -būk'p'o1 k'ūbe-C2 -būk'p'ö1 k'ūbe-C2 |
p'yowobūk'p'o k'ūbeppi - in the middle of getting eaten kwebūk'p'ö k'ūbeppi - in the middle of getting heard |
| Active Deverbal noun | -bossan1 -bössen1 |
p'yowobossan - eating kwebössen - hearing |
| Passive Deverbal noun | -ūk'p'o k'ūbössen -ūk'p'ö k'ūbössen |
p'yowochūk'p'o k'ūbössen - getting eaten kwedūk'p'ö k'ūbössen - getting heard |
1The last syllable from the verb stem is deleted before this suffix is added.
2The C marks the place for an obligatory case suffix (see Adverb infinitives).
Simple infinitives
The simple infinitive is used as an oblique of another verb. For example:
| Pot'-ak' | k'yamk'ottōtk'-a | madūkka-∅-ng | t'yamchya-∅ |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | shooting.star-ABS | want-ACT.TR-PRES | see-INF |
| I want to see a shooting star. | |||
Inessive infinitives
The inessive infinitive has the meaning of "when someone is doing something"; it is used as a time reference.
| Pot'ya-t | pōkp'ya-ppu | küllöd-öppi | p'adab-a | swe-nnet | opkōya-tt-o |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-GEN | forest-INE | walk-ACT.INE.INF | lightning-ABS | tree-ILL | strike-INTR-PAST |
| When I was walking in the forest, lightning struck a tree. | |||||
Instructive infinitives
The instructive infinitive describes in what manner something happens. For example:
| Myod-a | pingketti-dö | p'utsūk'-ōt | pöttü-tt-ö |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3SG-ABS | market-ALL | row-INSTR.INF | go-INTR-PAST |
| He went to the market by rowing. | |||
Adverb infinitives
The adverb infinitive requires a case (marked with C in the table). It has different meanings depending on the case used. Without a following case suffix, the suffix -ba/be makes a passive agent participle. The table below shows all cases that can be combined with the adverb infinitive.
| Case | Example |
|---|---|
| Abessive | kallobakku - without digging |
| Exessive | kallobatk'a - from having been digging |
| Inessive | kallobappu - in the middle of digging |
| Instrumental | kallobōp' - by digging |
| Translative | kallobak'p'o - to go digging |
The exessive and translative are used for expressing that someone goes from one activity to another, with the exessive corresponding to the from part, and the translative to the to part. For example:
| Pot'-a | opk'ū-ba-tk'a | p'ōnoppu-ba-nnat | pöttü-tt-ö |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ABS | sit-ADV.INF-EXE | stand-ADV.INF-TRANSL | go-INTR-PAST |
| I went from sitting to standing. | |||
The difference between the inessive infinitive and the inessive adverb infinitive is that the inessive infinitive can be used for comparing two situations in time: "when doing X, Y happened"; while the inessive adverb infinitive cannot be used that way. A single verb in the inessive adverb infinitive form can be used as an answer to the question where someone is. For example:
-Peppü op'a udittöng? (Where is dad?)
-Kadappappu. (Out fishing.)
The inessive adverb infinitive together with the auxiliary ut makes the progressive aspect.
Deverbal nouns
This form derives the name of the act of doing something. The difference between deverbal nouns and the simple infinitives is that the simple infinitives are used as objects while deverbal nouns are used as subjects. Deverbal nouns function just like normal nouns and can therefore take any case, or even the plural suffix when referring to several instances of some act. If the deverbal noun has an object argument, it gets the genitive case. So for example "the eating of food" would be nūjugat p'yowobossan.
Participles
| Participle | Morphology | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Active past participle | -ttūk1 | p'yowottūk sutsoga - boy who has eaten kwettūk k'wik'wö - girl who has heard |
| Passive past participle | -k'p'o k'ūttūk -k'p'ö k'ūttūk |
p'yowochyak'p'o k'ūttūk nūjuga - food that is eaten kwedik'p'ö k'ūttūk hūjungū - gossip that is heard |
| Active present participle | -lla1 -lle1 |
p'yowolla sutsoga - boy who is eating kwelle k'wik'wö - girl who is hearing |
| Passive present participle | -k'p'o k'ūlle -k'p'ö k'ūlle |
p'yowochyak'p'o k'ūlle nūjuga - food that is being eaten kwedik'p'ö k'ūlle hūjungū - gossip that is being heard |
| Active agent participle | ||
| Passive agent participle | -ba1 -be1 |
sutsogat p'yowoba nūjuga - food eaten by the boy k'wik'wöt kwebe hūjungū - gossip heard by the girl |
1The last syllable from the verb stem is deleted before this suffix is added.
When a verb is used for describing a noun the way adjectives are used, the verb takes a participle form. There are only two tenses, past and present. There are active participles, describing an agent, and passive participles, describing a patient. Causative voice can also be used. In that case, the causative suffix is added before the participle suffix as follows:
| K'yapya | ōppok'yob-ak' | t'ūgū-k'ye-lle | ud-∅-ong |
|---|---|---|---|
| this | show-ERG | sleep-CAUS-ACT.PRES.PTC | be-TR-PRES |
| This show is sleep-inducing. | |||
The active past participle and the active present participle can take an object, and the passive present participle and the passive agent participle can take a subject, all of which are marked with the genitive case. For the passive agent participle the agent argument is obligatory. The subject or object is placed right before the participle.
The agent participle is similar to the passive past participle, but the difference is that the past passive participle does not take a subject. If a noun (or pronoun) with genitive case is placed before the passive past participle, it means that the object described by the participle belongs to the person or thing marked by the genitive case. While for the agent participle, the genitive marks who the action has been done by.
The noun following a participle can have any case. If a core case is used, which one is used is governed by the finite verb's voice. The participle itself can be used as the object of the copula, as in the above example sentence. The copula will be marked as an active voice transitive and the subject will be marked as ergative, but no absolutive case will be present.
Nouns
Number
The singular form of nouns is unmarked, while the plural is marked with the suffix -k. If the noun ends with a consonant, a vowel is inserted before the -k suffix. Usually the vowel will be ō or wü depending on vowel harmony, but there are many irregular plurals that will use o, ö or wū as the linking vowel instead. In san words, final -san becomes -sōk and -sen becomes -swük.
Case
The final -n is deleted from san words before the case suffix is added.
| Case | Suffix | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Core cases | ||
| Ergative | -ak' -ek' |
kutsongak' - dog-ERG keppek' - cat-ERG |
| Absolutive | -a -e |
kutsonga - dog-NA keppe - cat-NA |
| Adpositional cases | ||
| Distributive | -k'illet -k'ullat |
keppik'illet - each cat separately syazolyak'ullat - every day |
| Distributive-Temporal | -oppot -öppöt |
syazoloppot - at daytime sigissöppöt - during frost |
| Essive | -tta -tte |
kutsongatta - as a dog keppitte - as a cat |
| Genitive | -t1 | kutsongat - dog's keppit - cat's |
| Instrumental | -ōp' -wüp' |
rappangōp' - with a hammer köswüp' - with a stick |
| Prolative | -kp'ō -kp'wü |
pōngokp'ō - by sea kikkukp'wü - by rooftop |
| Locational cases | ||
| Ablative | -(ō)t'k'ya -(wü)t'k'ye |
pōngot'k'ya - from the sea kikkut'k'ye - from the roof |
| Elative | -pk'a -pk'e |
kutsongapk'a - from the inside of the dog kikkupk'e - from inside the rooftop |
| Exessive | -tk'a -tk'e |
kutsongatk'a - (turn) from a dog (into something else) keppitk'e - (turn) from a cat (into something else) |
| Adessive | -di -du |
kikkudi - on the roof pōngodu - by the sea |
| Inessive | -ppi -ppu |
kikkuppi - in the roof pōngoppu - in the sea |
| Allative | -dö -do |
kikkudö - to the roof pōngodo - to the sea |
| Illative | -(nn)at -(nn)et |
pōngonnat - into the sea kikkunnet - into the roof |
| Translative | -k'p'o -k'p'ö |
kutsongak'p'o - (turn) into a dog keppik'p'ö - (turn) into a cat |
| Comitative | -ttō -twü |
kutsongattō - (together) with his/her dog keppitwü - (together) with his/her cat |
| Other | ||
| Abessive | -kki -kku |
kössekki - without a stick rappangakku - without a hammer |
| Vocative | -∅ | kutsonga - hey you dog! keppi - hey you cat! |
1After the plural suffix the genitive suffix is -ōt or -wüt. (All other word final consonants are simply replaced by -t.)
Adpositional cases
If the distributive case is used together with a word that stands for some kind of time period, it has the meaning that something is done during each of those periods. If used with any other kind of noun, it has the meaning of each of those separately. For example the sentence k'yapya k'yowo k'ōm sangok'ullat means "do this assignment in pairs", where the word for pair (sango) carries the distributive case. The distributive case can not be used with pronouns.
The distributive-temporal case is only used together with words relating to time. It has the meaning that something is done during that time, but unlike the simple distributive case it doesn't necessarily mean that it is done during every such time period.
The essive case has the meaning of "as" or "if". For example kyot'pyatta syazolyatta sidöding - during a cold day one freezes (or "if there is a cold day one freezes"), or nogapwatta ōno k'yowopk'yudappo - as a rich man I would not do work.
The genitive case is used for marking possession (with the possessive preceding the head noun), as well as for marking the agent in passive sentences. If the genitive case is used on a word that ends with a consonant, a vowel is inserted before the suffix. This is the same vowel as the one used in the plural form.
The instrumental tells that something is used as a tool. It cannot be used with personal pronouns or animate nouns. If need be, the pronoun or animate noun can be given the absolutive case, followed by the word küwikkōt (use-INSTR.INF).
The prolative tells "by which medium or route". For example rōtta hugokp'ō kūt'kōnang - the boat travels by river. It cannot be used with pronouns or animate nouns.
Locational cases
The ablative has the meaning of "from the vicinity or topside of something". The elative on the other hand means "from the inside of something". The elative has two other uses as well. When used on a time noun it means "from that time onwards". The other use is for expressing what someone feels; the person who is feeling gets the elative case.
The adessive has the meaning of "by, near or on top of something". The inessive means "inside something". Both the adessive and inessive can be used together with a time noun to indicate when something happened or will happen. The difference is that the adessive is used when the action stretches out during the whole time period, while the inessive is used about things that happened sometime during that time period.
The allative has the meaning of "to the vicinity or topside of something", while the illative has the meaning "to the inside of something". The illative can also be used with a time noun to indicate "until a certain time".
The "inside" meaning of the internal locatives (elative, inessive and illative) is also applied to objects that somehow cover something else (even if only partially). For example, when describing someone sitting on a chair, one of the internal locatives would be used because a chair has a back support, so the person sitting in it would have his or her back covered. A stool on the other hand does not have any part that covers a person, so one of the external locatives (ablative, adessive or allative) would be used. The external locatives are also used when describing possession of items or the transaction of items between people. The people involved are then marked with external locatives.
The exessive and translative cases describe either that something turns into something else, or that something changes from one state into another. The exessive is the source and the translative is the result. The exessive can also be used to descibe what something is made of.
Other cases
The abessive case has the meaning of "without". It cannot be used with personal pronouns or nouns standing for humanoid beings. Instead the preposition ot'pat is used, followed by the given noun or pronoun in essive case.
The vocative case is used when addressing someone by their name or title, and also when calling someone a rude word. The word with the vocative case can be placed either at the beginning or end of the sentence.
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has a three-way distinction of person in its personal pronouns, but no gender distinction.
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | Interrogative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | pot'ya I |
p'ot'ya you |
myat he/she |
kūga who |
| Plural | pō we |
k'ō you |
mō they |
kōkkya who |
In the daughter languages of Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo the second person pronouns are avoided for politeness, and instead the addressee's name or title is used. In Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo, at least the singular second person pronoun was avoided, but it is unclear if it was because of politeness reasons or because it was so similar to the singular first person pronoun. If the plural second person pronoun was also avoided is unknown.
Demonstrative Pronouns
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | Interrogative | Interrogative dual | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | k'yapya this |
k'ūju that |
p'ō that/it |
pokya what |
kūp'so which |
| Plural | t'yapya these |
t'ūju those |
t'ō those/they |
pokkya which |
kūp'sok which ones |
The demonstrative pronouns refer to inanimate things and non-humanoid beings, except for the singular interrogative dual which can also be used about humanoids. The demonstrative pronouns can also be used as demonstrative determiners. The interrogative dual has the meaning of "which one (of two alternatives)". Kūp'sok is used when referring to two groups of things.
Relative Pronouns
There are two relative pronouns: huga, which refers to the preceding noun; and pokya, which refers to the preceding clause or sentence. If a relative pronoun is used without the thing it refers to having been explicitly mentioned, then huga will be used if the implicit thing is animate, and pokya if it is inanimate. For example:
| Myat-ōt | op'-a | atk'wa-tto-∅, | myad-ak' | pog-a | syuk'yu-∅ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3SG-GEN | father-ABS | give-INTR-HAB | 3SG-ERG | what-ABS | ask.for-HAB |
| Her father gives her what she asks for. | |||||
The relative pronoun gets the same number as the thing it refers to, and whichever case is required in the position the relative pronoun appears in. Unless the relative pronoun appears without something it refers to, as in the above example, it is moved to the beginning of the relative clause.
Reciprocal Pronoun
The reciprocal pronoun is k'utsossan (k'utsossa in absolutive case and k'utsossōt in the genitive). Below are examples of the word in both cases.
| M-ak' | k'utsoss-a | nagapk'wa-ng |
|---|---|---|
| 3PL-ERG | each.other-ABS | love-PRES |
| They love each other. | ||
| M-ak' | k'utsoss-ōt | mofūb-ōg-a | tōnogakk-o |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3PL-ERG | each.other-GEN | hair-PL-ABS | cut-PAST |
| They cut each other's hair. | |||
Reflexive Pronoun
The reflexive pronoun is okp'ō.
| Pot'-ak' | okp'-a | sōpk'-o |
|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | self-ABS | wash-PAST |
| I washed myself. | ||
The reflexive pronoun can also be used for emphasis, in which case it is placed after the verb.
| Pot'-ak' | p'-a | k'ōmchya-ng | okp'ō |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | it-ABS | do-PRES | self |
| I'll do it myself! | |||
Quantifier Pronouns
| Inclusive | Exclusive | Universal | Negative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular humanoid | kūga k'annatp'a anyone |
hugū someone |
killege everyone |
ōno kūkyut no one |
| Plural humanoid | kōkkya k'annatp'a anyone |
hukkūk some |
ōno kōkkyut no one | |
| Dual | kūp'so k'annatp'a either one |
hup'sogūp'so either or |
pudöbik both |
ōno kūp'sokyut neither |
| Singular inanimate | pokya k'annatp'a anything/any |
hugot something/some |
killege everything/all |
ōno pokyut nothing/no |
| Plural inanimate | pokkya k'annatp'a any |
hukkot some |
ōno pokkyut no |
The singular inanimates can also be used as determiners. The plural inanimates can only be used as determiners. See also Quantifier adverbs for more quantifiers.
Adjectives
San adjectives declinate slightly differently than other adjectives, as the final -an or -en is deleted from san adjectives before comparison suffixes are added. The following table displays both types of declination.
| Comparison | Suffix | Example |
|---|---|---|
| San adjectives | ||
| Positive | -∅ | pyowomyazossan - late negettüzessen - broken |
| Comparative | -ōp'so -wüp'sö |
pyowomyazossōp'so - later negettüzesswüp'sö - more broken |
| Superlative | -ot -öt |
pyowomyazossot - latest negettüzessöt - most broken |
| Other adjectives | ||
| Positive | -∅ | mochap - slow kūbi - odd |
| Comparative | -p'so1 -p'sö |
mochap'so - slower kūbip'sö - odder |
| Superlative | -tsot1 -tsöt |
mochatsot - slowest kūbitsöt - oddest |
1If the adjective ends with p, the p is deleted before this suffix is added. (There are only front vowel adjectives that end with p.)
Epithets
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has a special part of speech called epithets. Epithets are words that precede proper nouns and define what kind of thing that proper noun is. Epithets are mostly used with people's names and names of geographical locations. They function differently from nouns and adjectives because epithets do not inflect, they cannot be used predicatively and epithets only modify proper nouns while adjectives only modify common nouns.
A few epithets are identical to the corresponding noun and some are closely related to the corresponding noun. Others have been derived from other nouns, some are words that used to be nouns but have ceased to be used as such, and some are words borrowed from other languages.
The use of epithets is not obligatory, especially not in full sentences. Though, when it comes to people's names, using an epithet is a sign of respect, so when speaking in the presence of someone one does not know intimately, they are almost always used together with that person's name.
| Shorthand translation of epithet | Epithet | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Bachelor | hyakkya | Signifies the name of an unmarried man (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name) |
| Bay | Used before the name of a bay, bight or gulf | |
| Beach | zyōkp'o | Used before the name of a beach |
| Bridge | p'ot'k'a | Used before the name of a bridge. This is the same word as the noun for bridge. |
| Cape | kash | Used before the name of a cape |
| City | Used before the name of a town or city | |
| Coast | fupk'a | The name of a coastline |
| Delta | chōt'k'a | Used before the name of a delta or mouth of a river. Usually a river and its delta or mouth will have the same name, but different epithets are used depending on which part one is talking about. |
| Doctor | k'umk'ungo | Used before a doctor's name (surname or surname followed by given name) |
| Ford | kamtai | Used before the name of a ford |
| Forest | p'adu | Used before the name of a forest (standard) |
| kungso | Used before the name of a forest (dialectal) | |
| God | hūbat' | Signifies the name of a deity |
| Highland | yotyapwa | Used before the name of a highland or elevated tableland |
| Hill | kūp'sū | Used before the name of a hill |
| Island | wo | Used before the name of an island |
| Island chain | angkossōtwafo | Used before the name of an island chain, a group of islands or an archipelago |
| King | nōsh | Signifies the name of a king |
| Lake | hyanglo | Used before the name of a lake. This is the same word as the noun for lake. |
| Land | kutk'ū | Used before the name of a piece of land, a country or a region |
| Lowland | adapwa | Used before the name of a lowland area |
| Miss | t'ōnokko | Signifies the name of an unmarried woman (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name) |
| Mister | möngi | Signifies the name of a married man (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name) |
| Mistress | nutsūlla | Signifies the name of a married woman (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name) |
| Mountain | Used before the name of a mountain or peak | |
| Mountain range | k'ūtk'ūngo | Used before the name of a mountain range |
| Pass | kūt'kū | Used before the name of a mountain pass |
| Peninsula | kofōdo | Used before the name of a peninsula |
| Plateau | Used before the name of a plateau of undefined height (see also lowland (adapwa) and highland (yotyapwa)) | |
| Pond | tap'so | Used before the name of a pond or spring |
| Queen | igi | Signifies the name of a queen |
| Rapids | zhungp'i | Used before the name of some rapids |
| River | nofu | Used before the name of a river |
| Road | rofa | Used before the name of a road or street |
| Sea | ūdissi | Used before the name of a sea |
| Ship | adūp | Signifies the name of a ship or boat |
| Straight | kat'wado | Used before the name of a straight or sound |
| Stream | rongk'a | Used before the name of a stream, creek or brook |
| Swamp | nyabō | Used before the name of a swamp, marsh, bog or quagmire |
| Town drunk | hūjussu | Used before the name of a drunkard with low status in the society (surname, or given name, or surname followed by given name). This usage is rude, and these people would rather prefer to be called by the epithet möngi or hyakkya. |
| Valley | p'uda | Used before the name of a valley |
| Village | sok'yahya | Used before the name of a village or settlement |
| Yard | sonna | Signifies the name of a courtyard or farmyard, or signifies the house on that plot |
Adverbs
Below are listed adverbs that are related to the pronouns, in such a way that there is a person distinction among them as well as interrogative forms (allthough some of them distinguish fewer than three persons), and that some of them are somehow derived from the pronouns (cf. the locational adverbs with the demonstrative pronouns).
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | Interrogative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Locational | k'ue- here |
k'ūju- there |
p'e- there |
po- where |
| Temporal | t'yok now |
p'edutset then |
podutsat when | |
| Manner | t'yazot this way |
t'utsot that way |
pokkōt how | |
| Reason | p'ok'p'o therefore |
pok'p'o why | ||
These locational adverbs are obligatorily combined with a one of the locational cases ablative, adessive, allative, elative, inessive or illative.
Quantifier adverbs
| Inclusive | Exclusive | Universal | Negative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Locative | poppu k'annatp'a anywhere |
huppiget somewhere |
killegedi everywhere |
ōno popkyut nowhere |
| Temporal | podutsat k'annatp'a anytime |
hupkūp sometime |
allotta all the time |
ōno kupkyut never |
| Manner | pokkōt k'annatp'a any way |
hukkōtkot somehow |
huga k'assōp' every way |
ōno pokkōtkyut no way |
Particles
There are several postposition, a few ambipositions (adpositions that can appear either before or after the noun it modifies) and even fewer prepositions in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo. The words that are solely postpositions require the preceding noun to have genitive case. The tables in the following sections use the word k'adu (house), and in some cases op'ya (father), as an example together with the adpositions.
Postpositions
| Motion to | Being at a location | Motion away | Motion across |
|---|---|---|---|
| k'adut adado under the house |
k'adut adadu under the house |
k'adut adat'k'ya from underneath the house |
k'adut adakp'ō underneath the house |
| k'adut kōpkodo to the middle of the house |
k'adut kōpkodu in the middle of the house |
k'adut kōpkot'k'ya from the middle of the house |
k'adut kōpkokp'ō across the middle of the house |
| k'adut k'agado behind the house |
k'adut k'agadu behind the house |
k'adut k'agat'k'ya from behind the house |
k'adut k'agakp'ō across the back of the house |
| k'adut ōkkūdo in front of the house |
k'adut ōkkūdu in front of the house |
k'adut ōkkūt'k'ya from front of the house |
k'adut ōkkūkp'ō across the front of the house |
| k'adut p'ollūdo beside the house |
k'adut p'ollūdu beside the house |
k'adut p'ollūt'k'ya from beside the house |
k'adut p'ollūkp'ō past the side of the house |
| k'adut p'op'yannat into the house |
k'adut p'op'yappu inside the house |
k'adut p'op'yapk'a from the inside of the house |
- (tyassokp'ō is used instead, see the list further down this section) |
| k'adut rofōngōdo beside the house |
k'adut rofōngōdu beside the house |
k'adut rofōngōt'k'ya from beside the house |
- |
| op'yat tūjudo to father's home/vicinity |
op'yat tūjudu at father's home/vicinity |
op'yat tūjut'k'ya from father's home/vicinity |
- |
| k'adut tyannodo near the house |
k'adut tyannodu near the house |
k'adut tyannot'k'ya from near the house / something passes by close to the house | |
| k'adut yotyado on top of the house / above the house |
k'adut yotyadu on top of the house / above the house |
k'adut yotyat'k'ya from the top of the house / from above the house |
k'adut yotyakp'ō over the house |
The difference between p'ollū- and rofōngō- is that p'ollū- denotes the flank or the location immediately next to something, while rofōngō- denotes a wider area. So for example sa ut k'adut rofōngōdu (the tree is beside the house) could be said even if there is some third object between the house and the tree, making it impossible to see the house from where the tree is. Sa ut k'adut p'ollūdu means that "the tree is right next to the house". K'adut p'ollūdu can also mean "on the wall (flank) of the house". Though p'ollū- and rofōngō- are synonymous to many speakers.
The tūju- postpositions can only be used in reference to an animate being. They can either have the meaning of near that person, or that person's home (whether or not s/he is home).
The tyanno- postpositions can also be used as adverbs (without any preceding noun).
The following invariant postpositions also exist. They all require the preceding noun to have genitive case, except for rangk'ōt.
- hyat'kodu - after (locational)
- hyat'koppu - after (temporal)
- ippöpyette - in someone's place
- killūkki - via
- k'agofa - for someone's sake; because of
- rangk'ōt1 - for a purpose
- sūjudopk'a - on behalf of somebody
- tyassokp'ō - through
- unnokp'ō - past (locational)
- yop'syongo - around (only one lap, see also Prepositions)
1This postposition requires the noun to have the exessive case instead of genitive.
Ambipositions
The following table shows all ambipositions as well as the cases they call for in the nouns they modify.
| Ambiposition | Case of noun |
|---|---|
| kumk'o - toward | Allative |
| kutk'yunga - against | Essive |
| rapk'ōt - against | Any external locative |
| rapk'wat - toward; versus | Allative |
| sokkot - along | Any external locative |
The difference between kumk'o and rapk'wat is that rapk'wat is only used about something moving towards a person. Kumk'o is used either about someone or something moving towards some inanimate object or place, about someone moving with malicious intent toward some person, or about something capable of causing injury moving towards a person. Rapk'wat can not have any of these meanings. Rapk'wat is usually used about a person moving toward someone else to greet that person, or for describing who or what one has met during one's way. With these meanings, rapk'wat can also be used as an adverb modifying an inessive infinitive. Paradoxically, one other use for rapk'wat is like the word "versus" in a battle (possibly because a sports battle is entered with both parties' consent, while battles in war are meant to be fought with a code of honour).
The difference between kutk'yunga and rapk'ōt is that rapk'ōt is used for describing the position of some object, usually together with verbs with meanings similar to "lean". Kutk'yunga on the other hand is used about someone or something being against someone else's order or will.
Prepositions
| Preposition | Case of noun |
|---|---|
| kallo - probably | - |
| ot'pat - without | Essive |
| öttöt - before | Essive or illative |
| yop'syongo - around (several laps) | Adessive |
Kallo is used at the beginning of a sentence, even before any question words. In declarative sentences it has meanings like "probably" or "maybe", signalling the speaker's uncertainty. In questions it means something like "surely", signalling that the speaker is making a guess. Kallo is not used in imperative sentences.
Ot'pat can only be used together with pronouns or nouns standing for humanoid beings.
Öttöt (which can also be used as an adverb) calls for the illative case on time nouns or other nouns that denote a specific time, and otherwise essive. See examples below.
| Pot'-a | mōnyak'ya-tt-o | öttöt | allūngotkut-t'uptūgu-nnat |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ABS | wake.up-INTR-PAST | before | sun-rise-ILL |
| I woke up before sunrise. | |||
| P'ot'-a | k'ūdi-tt-o | kukko-nnat | öttöt | pot'ya-tk'a |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2SG-ABS | come-INTR-PAST | home-ILL | before | 1SG-ESS |
| You came home before me. | ||||
Yop'syongo is used like preposition when talking about something that goes several turns around. If talking about something that makes only one turn, it is used like a postposition.
Numerals
Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo has a decimal system. The numbers 11-19 are expressed by adding the suffix -k'utsossan to one of the numbers 1-9. Higher numbers are expressed simply by placing the name of one of the numbers 2-9 before the name of one of the numbers 10, 100, 1000 or 10 000. For example, 20 is called kak'p'o-kwibössen and 317 is called kut'pō-p'akka-kwibössen-p'ōnokp'ōpyat.
| Number | Cardinal Numeral | Ordinal Numeral | Distributive |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | yok'p'o | ōtp'obuzassan | yok'p'ok'ullat |
| 2 | kak'p'o | k'utsossan | kak'p'ok'ullat |
| 3 | kut'pō | kut'pap | kut'pōk'ullat |
| 4 | t'ōt'hya | t'ōt'hyap | t'ōt'hyak'ullat |
| 5 | ryōppo | ryōppap | ryōppok'ullat |
| 6 | kaippo | kaippap | kaippok'ullat |
| 7 | p'ōnokp'ōpyat | p'ōnokp'ōpyap | p'ōnokp'ōpyatk'ullat |
| 8 | kamchōk'p'at | kamchōk'p'ap | kamchōk'p'atk'ullat |
| 9 | yomchōk'p'yat | yomchōk'p'yap | yomchōk'p'yatk'ullat |
| 10 | kwibössen1 | kwibössep | kwibössek'ullat |
| 100 | p'akka | p'akkap | p'akkak'ullat |
| 1000 | k'ūnnak | k'ūnnap | k'ūnnakk'ullat |
| 10 000 | pyongofacho | pyongofachap | pyongofachok'ullat |
| Interrogative | putk'a(gu) | puttōp(ku) | puttok'ullat(ku) |
1The -ssen suffix is deleted when a numeral classifier is added.
The cardinal numerals are like one, two, three, while the ordinal numerals are like first, second, third. The distributive numerals are used for expressing how many parts something should be divided into. These are indeed the same as the cardinal numbers with the distributive case. The interrogative number is used when asking questions that include "how many...", and also as a relative pronoun. Interrogative numerals are always used with the interrogative clitic -ku, which is placed after any numeral classifier.
Numeral Classifiers
Normally numerals are used together with a classifier suffix. Different suffixes are used depending on what is counted. So for example two carrots would be called kak'p'ohaingo sungkitti while two rocks would be called kak'p'opwomkyonya kollo (sungkitti meaning carrot and kollo rock).
The classifier is used regardless if the numeral is used for modifying a noun or if it is used predicatively. The noun can even be dropped if it is clear from context and the classifier what is being referred to. If just counting numbers, then no classifier is used.
Below is a list of classifiers. Since there are no neutral vowel numerals, the suffixes are simply presented with back vowel suffixes first and front vowel suffixes second.
| Shorthand name | Suffix | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Abstract | -tsya -tsye |
Abstract things; also used when one does not know what other classifier to use |
| Age | -(p)pallo -ppellö |
Years of age of people and things |
| Animals | -ukkūp | Animals that do not fall under any of the other categories |
| Birds | -(t)tugu -ttugi |
Birds and bats |
| Bottles | -syūdu | Bottles and beverages stored in bottles |
| Bugs | -bakku -bekku |
Small animals such as insects, worms and amphibians |
| Buildings | -gukku -gikku |
Buildings |
| Bundles | -(t)tassū -ttessū |
Bundles and bunches of things |
| Canines | -(n)nūgu -nnūgi |
Dogs and wolves |
| Cattle | -(p)panglōgap -ppengrwügep |
Livestock (excluding poultry) |
| Children | -gaknap -geknep |
Children of humanoid creatures |
| Clothes | -(k)kabottō -kkebötwü |
Clothes worn on the body, including shawls and scarfs but excluding other accessories |
| Collective | -k1 | Groups or things that consist of several parts |
| Containers | -(p)patku -ppetku |
Containers other than bottles |
| Eggs | -uk' -ük' |
Eggs, excluding roe and spawn |
| Fish | -zhoppū -zhöppū |
Caught fish |
| Flat | -dallūjō -dellūjwü |
Flat objects made of unflexible material; places |
| Fruit | -(n)nōllo -nwüllö |
Fruit, berries, nuts and vegetables other than root vegetables |
| Horses | -(n)nossu -nnössi |
Horses |
| Large | -hyangkyadō -hyengkyetwü |
Large object, e.g. mountains, sun, moon |
| Layers | -gongup -göngup |
Floors and layers |
| Machine | -guhō -guhwü |
Machines and vehicles |
| Marine | -ōlyakyap -wülyekyep |
Sea creatures (not caught) |
| Motion | -llofūm -llöfūm |
Words for movements, especially nominalized motion verbs |
| Multiplicative | -gōngk'a -kwüngk'e |
Number of times something is done |
| Oblong | -swokkwo -swökkwö |
Long and narrow objects, excluding those things that go into the pipes category |
| Pairs | -(s)sango -ssengö |
Pairs of things, as well as objects that consist of two similar parts |
| People | -kyu | Humanoid creatures other than children (standard) |
| -syu | Humanoid creatures other than children (dialectal) | |
| Piles | -gūgūngu -gūgūngi |
Piles and heaps of things and materials |
| Pipes | -nwowongo -nwöwöngö |
Hollow, oblong things |
| Root vegetables | -haingo -hingö |
Root vegetables and bulbs |
| Round | -pwomkyonya -pwömkyönye |
Small round objects |
| Seafood | -gada -gede |
Sea creatures other than fish that has been caught |
| Sheets | -ungka -ingke |
Flat objects made of flexible material, like paper or fabric |
| Small | -ō -wü |
Small non-round items |
| Strands | -noshp'o -nöshp'ö |
Very thin and oblong things, e.g. strands of hair, rivers |
| Strings | -gōnya -kwünye |
Strings, threads, ropes, etc. |
| Substance | -kwogwo -kwögwö |
Things that consist of liquid, a mushy substance or fine powder |
| Trees | -(k)kūga -kkūge |
Trees, excluding bushes |
| Void | -ubu -ibu |
Holes, hollows and negative spaces |
| Wood | -gudagu -gidegi |
Pieces of wood and items made from cut wood |
1The final consonant is deleted from p'ōnokp'ōpyat, kamchōk'p'at and yomchōk'p'yat when this suffix is added. Kwibössen becomes kwibössek and k'ūnnak becomes k'ūnnagōk.
Syntax
Valency operations
Each verb in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo is inherently either transitive and intransitive. Intransitive verbs can further be divided into two types: Those that take an agent-like subject, A-intransitives, and those that take a patient-like subject, P-intransitives. Hūjupk'a (run) is an example of an A-intransitive. The subject is the person who runs. Hyuk'yoya (freeze) is an example of a P-intransitive. Its subject is the thing that turns into ice, not the person who is freezing something. The table below shows which kind of verbs can take which voice and transitivity suffixes, and what cases their arguments will have. The number in parenthesis corresponds to the example sentences in the following sections.
| INTR | TR | PASS | CAUS | PASS-CAUS | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A-Intransitive | agent-ABS verb-INTR (1) | - | verb-PASS (5) | causer-ERG causee-ALL verb-CAUS (7) | causee-ABS (causer-GEN) verb-PASS.CAUS (10) |
| P-Intransitive | patient-ABS verb-INTR (2) | - | - | agent-ERG patient-ABS verb-CAUS (8) | causee-ABS (causer-GEN) verb-PASS.CAUS (11) |
| Transitive | agent-ABS verb-INTR (3) | agent-ERG patient-ABS verb-TR (4) | patient-ABS (agent-GEN) verb-PASS (6) | causer-ERG causee-ALL patient-ABS verb-CAUS (9) | causee-ERG patient-ABS (causer-GEN) verb-PASS.CAUS (12) |
Intransitives
The intransitive marker can be used on all kinds of verbs. The absolutive case is used on the sole argument of the intransitive verb.
| 1) | Kutsong-a | myosyak'ya-tto-ng. |
|---|---|---|
| dog-ABS | jump-INTR-PRES | |
| The dog jumps. | ||
| 2) | Sw-a | satwa-tto-ng. |
|---|---|---|
| wood-ABS | burn-INTR-PRES | |
| The wood burns. | ||
The intransitive marker can be used on inherently transitive verbs, and then it functions like antipassive voice: it removes the object from the sentence. One reason for doing this is that some verbs have a prototypical object, so it seems unnecessary to even mention the object. For example, in the sentence k'wik'ek' tallūda tallūdo (the girl sang a song) tallūdu (song) would be usual object of tallūtwa (sing). Furthermore, the word for song has been derived from the word for sing, so there is unneeded repetition in the sentence. Therefore a speaker would likely say k'wik'a tallūtwatto (the girl sang) instead. Even a non-typical object, which is obvious from context, might get deleted this way.
| 3) | Pot'-a | p'yowochya-tto-ng. |
|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ABS | eat-INTR-PRES | |
| I eat. | ||
Transitives
Transitive verbs are zero-marked. The "marker" may not be used on inherently intransitive verbs. If one wants to introduce another argument into a sentence with an intransitive verb, the new argument needs to have some non-core case. When the verb is transitive, the subject takes ergative case and the object takes absolutive case.
| 4) | Pot'-ak' | ubōtt-a | p'yowochya-∅-ng. |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | apple-ABS | eat-TR-PRES | |
| I eat an apple. | |||
Passives
The passive voice removes the agent from the sentence. It can optionally be reinserted into the sentence with the use of the genitive case. The structure of a passive sentence is patient-ABS (agent-GEN) auxiliary-TNS main-verb-PST.PTCP. (Note that the passive voice is expressed by preceding the main verb with the auxiliary verb k'ūdi and adding the past participle suffix -ttūk to the main verb.)
| 6) | Ubōtt-a | (pot'ya-t) | k'ūd-ö | p'yowo-ttūk. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| apple-ABS | (1SG-GEN) | PASS.AUX-PAST | eat-PST.PTCP | |
| The apple got eaten (by me). | ||||
There are a few A-intransitives that can be passivized. In that case the verb becomes zero-valent. These verbs usually describe forces that are not in anyone's control.
| 5) | Rūjungo-du | kurwa | k'ūdi-ng | sūnnat'-tūk. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| mountain-ADE | hard.ADV | PASS.AUX-PRS | blow-PST.PTCP | |
| The wind is blowing hard at the mountain. | ||||
Causatives
The causative voice is used for describing what someone makes someone else do. The person who is made to do something is marked with the allative case and the causer with ergative case.
| 7) | Yazokk-ak' | rallūlla-do | kyot'sō-k'ya-ng. |
|---|---|---|---|
| mother-ERG | baby-ALL | bathe-CAUS-PRS | |
| The mother bathes the baby. | |||
When the verb is transitive, the direct object gets absolutive case. The order of arguments is causer causee DO verb. The patient argument may optionally be dropped when the verb is transitive and causative.
| 9) | Pot'-ak' | myat-to | (tallūd-a) | kwe-k'ye-ng |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | 3SG-ALL | (song-ABS) | hear-CAUS-PRES | |
| I make him hear (a song). | ||||
When used on P-intransitives, one could say that the causative voice is used for turning the verb transitive. The agent or causer still takes ergative case, but these verbs deviate from the A-intransitives in that second argument takes absolutive case.
| 8) | Pot'-ak' | rōpp-a | k'ūdi | hyuk'yo-k'ya |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | water-ABS | AUX.FUT | freeze-CAUS | |
| I will freeze the water. | ||||
Besides the patient, the causee may also be dropped from the sentence, regardless of the type of verb. The patient and causee may even be both dropped from the same sentence. The causer, however, may not be dropped from these sentences; to make such a sentence one needs to use the passive-causative voice.
Passive-causatives
The passive-causative voice is used for indicating that someone is made to do something, but not by whom; although the causer can be reinserted into sentence by employing the genitive case. The difference between the passive and the passive-causative is the role of the first argument in the sentence: in passive sentences it is a patient, while in passive-causative sentences it is an agent (which may be followed by a patient). Both voices have in common that another argument can optionally be inserted into the sentence; this argument being the instigator of the whole action. The passive-causative often has the implication that the causee is somehow negatively affected by being forced to do something (possibly in examples 10 and 12 below), though the sentence could also have a neutral meaning (example 11).
| 10) | Mōlluss-a | (ubapha-t) | k'ūdi-ng | hūjup-tūk-k'ya. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| horse-ABS | (owner-GEN) | PASS.AUX-PRS | run-PST.PTCP-CAUS | |
| The horse is being made to run (by its owner). | ||||
| 11) | T'yapya | kūgiss-ōg-a | (pūkp'o-t) | k'ūdi-ng | kap-tūk-k'ya. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| these | flower-PL-ABS | (mother-GEN) | PASS.AUX-PRS | grow-PST.PTCP-CAUS | |
| These flowers were grown (by mom). | |||||
| 12) | Pot'-ak' | mat'kōkkōt'p-a | (zhalloha-t) | k'ūd-o | mi-ttūk-k'ye. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | firewood-ABS | (father-GEN) | PASS.AUX-PST | chop-PST.PTCP-CAUS | |
| I was made to chop firewood (by my father). | |||||
If the verb is transitive, then either the causee or patient (but not both) may be dropped. The patient may be dropped without any other changes.
| Pot'-ak' | (zhalloha-t) | k'ūd-o | mi-ttūk-k'ye. |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | (father-GEN) | PASS.AUX-PST | chop-PST.PTCP-CAUS |
| I was made to chop (by my father). | |||
But if the causee is dropped, it takes the place of the causer. So the optional arguement marked with genitive case is the causee and not the causer. The causer may not be reinserted into the sentence.
| Mat'kōkkōt'p-a | (pot'ya-t) | k'ūd-o | mi-ttūk-k'ye. |
|---|---|---|---|
| firewood-ABS | (1SG-GEN) | PASS.AUX-PST | chop-PST.PTCP-CAUS |
| The firewood was made to be chopped (through me). | |||
Imperative sentences
When imperative mood is used on a verb, that verb (or verb complex) is moved to the beginning of the sentence. The addressee can optionally be added at the beginning or end of the sentence. The addressee will have the vocative case.
| Kebu-∅ | magō | rōpp-a | sūngu-pk'a. |
|---|---|---|---|
| PR-VOC | fetch.IMP | water-ABS | stream-ELA |
| Kebu, fetch some water from the stream! | |||
The sentence will not have a subject, though the addressee could be argued to be the subject. If there is an object, it will have absolutive case. No tense or aspect marking is used on the verb, except for that the frequentative may be used. If the frequentative is used, then the present frequentative suffix is added after the final syllable of the verb has been deleted. If the energetic suffix is also used, it is placed after the frequentative.
| Pagū-du-ng-sa | p'ō | hūjub-a. |
|---|---|---|
| taste.IMP-FREQ-PRS-ENRG | DEM.3SG | drink-ABS |
| Have some of that drink. | ||
The intransitive suffix is not used together with the imperative, so transitive and intransitive verbs are not morphologically distinguished. The object of a transitive verb may be dropped without making any further changes to the verb.
| Pagū! |
|---|
| drink.IMP |
| Drink! |
The imperative can be used on passive verbs, in which case it is marked on the auxiliary k'ūdi.
| K'ū | t'yam-tūk | ūdup | pött-öppi, | Hyongko-∅. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PASS.AUX.IMP | see-PST.PTCP | out | go-INE.INF | PR-VOC |
| Be seen when you exit, Hyongko. | ||||
The causative voice cannot be used together with the imperative mood. Instead the following method is used: First p'wa (get.IMP), sop (put.IMP) or tille (put.IMP) is put at the beginning of the sentence, then the causee with allative case is added, then the patient with absolutive case, and finally the main verb with the adverb infinitive and translative case.
| Tille | tashp'o-k-to | sungkitti-g-e | kūjungo-ba-k'p'o. |
|---|---|---|---|
| put.IMP | child-PL-ALL | carrot-PL-ABS | peel-ADV.INF-TRANSL |
| Have the children peel the carrots. | |||
There is very little distinction in the choice of p'wa, sop or tille. P'wa could be used in a situation where the causer somehow needs to exert very little power or influence to get things going. Sop could possibly have negative connotations, as if the causer is supposed to boss someone around. Tille could be used in a situation where workers, servants, people in one's household etc. are to be put to work, but without the negative overtones of sop.
Interrogative sentences
Questions are made by either using a question word, which is moved to the beginning of the sentence, or by adding the interrogative suffix -gu to the word that is questioned. A word with the interrogative suffix is also moved to the beginning of the sentence. If the suffix is used on a verb, it is placed on the first auxiliary (if there is one), and the whole verb complex is moved to the beginning of the sentence.
| Pog-a | p'ot'-ak' | p'wach-o? |
|---|---|---|
| what-ABS | you-ERG | get-PAST |
| What did you get? | ||
| Ut-to-gu | kyot'sōya-ng | p'ot'-a? |
|---|---|---|
| PERF-INTR-Q | bathe-PRES | you-ABS |
| Have you bathed? | ||
Negation
Negation is done with the negative auxiliary verb ōno. The verb that is negated get the simple infinitive form and is placed directly after ōno, with ōno taking all the conjugation; unless there is need to use the habitual tense or perfect or progressive aspect, in which case the negated verb is conjugated normally and ōno is placed before that verb without any marking.
The ōno that precedes the negative pronouns is removed when these words are used in negative sentences.
Comparative constructions
To make comparative constructions where and adjective is compared, such as "X is more ADJ than what Y is", Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo uses the following construction: X-ABS ADJ-COMP kūjot Y-ABS COP. For example:
| K'yapya | k'ad-a | oppu-p'so | kūjot | p'-a | udi-tto-ng. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| this | house-ABS | big-COMP | than | that.3SG-ABS | be-INTR-PRS |
| This house is bigger than that one. | |||||
If it is a verb that is compared instead of an adjective, the following construction is used: X (OBJ-ABS) V öttöbüt kūjot Y (or X (OBJ-ABS) öttöbüt V kūjot Y). The cases of X and Y depend on the transitivity of the verb, and if Y is an agent or patient. X will have ergative case if the verb is transitive, and absolutive case if the verb is intransitive. Y will have ergative case if the verb is transitive and Y is the object of that verb. Otherwise Y will have absolutive case.
| P'ot'-ak' | p'ofōbōd-ōg-a | p'yowochya-∅ | öttöbüt | kūjot | totk'-ak'. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2SG-ERG | seed-PL-ABS | eat-HAB | more | than | bird-ERG |
| You eat more seeds than what birds do. | |||||
In the example above, p'yowochya (eat) has two subjects, p'ot'ya (you) and totk'ū (bird). They both have ergative marking. P'ofōbōdōk (seeds) is the object, so it has absolutive marking.
| P'ot'-ak' | p'ofōbōd-ōg-a | p'yowochya-∅ | öttöbüt | kūjot | totk'ū-g-a. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2SG-ERG | seed-PL-ABS | eat-HAB | more | than | bird-PL-ABS |
| You eat more seeds than you eat birds. | |||||
In this second example, the word totk'ūk (birds) has absolutive marking, meaning that the birds are an object. If the sentence has no object, then both X and Y will have the absolutive case and the verb will have intransitive marking. The Y argument will then be a subject. As an example:
| P'ot'-a | p'yowochya-tto-∅ | öttöbüt | kūjot | totk'-a. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2SG-ABS | eat-INTR-HAB | more | than | bird-ABS | |
| You eat more than what a bird does. | |||||
Relative clauses
Bound relative clauses
Bound relative clauses make use of the relative pronoun huga, which refers back to the previous noun (the antecedent). The relative clause is inserted inside the main clause, right after the antecedent, with huga introducing the relative clause. The antecedent has whatever case it is required to have in the main clause, and huga takes whatever case it is required to have inside the relative clause.
The antecedent may have any role of the accessibility hierarchy in the relative clause, as shown below. The antecent has been underlined in these examples, and the relative clause surrounded by [ ].
| Subject of relative clause | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mōlluss-a | [hug-a | kangakka-tt-o] | nūpkōna | udi-tto-ng. |
| horse-ABS | [REL.PRON-ABS | escape-INTR-PST] | brown | be-INTR-PRS |
| The horse [that ran away] is brown. | ||||
| Direct object of relative clause | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mōlluss-a | [hug-a | pot'-ak' | rofōch-o | t'wassūngo-t | sonna-do] | ut-to-ng | kangak-tūk. |
| horse-ABS | [REL.PRON-ABS | 1SG-ERG | take-PST | neighbor-GEN | yard-ALL] | PRF.AUX-INTR-PRS | escape-PST.PTCP |
| The horse [which I brought to the neighbor's yard] has run away. | |||||||
The word order in the relative clause may become different than word order normally, since the relative pronoun needs to be in the beginning of the clause. In this sentence huga is an object, which normally would appear after the subject, appears here before it.
| Indirect object of relative clause | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| T'wassūng-a | huga-do | pot'-ak' | kangak-tūk | mōlluss-a | k'ūjuch-o] | odossan-t-o. |
| neighbor-ABS | REL.PRON-ALL | 1SG-ERG | escape-PST.PTCP | horse-ABS | bring-PST | happy-INTR-PST |
| The neighbor, [to whom I brought the escaped horse], was happy. | ||||||
| Oblique of relative clause | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sonn-a, | [huga-du | yop'syongo | k'ūju | mōlluss-a | hūjupk'a-tto-ng], | pot'ya-t | t'wassūngo-t | udi-tto-ng. |
| yard-ABS | [REL.PRON-ADE | around | DEM.2SG | horse-ABS | run-INTR-PRS] | 1SG-GEN | neighbor-GEN | be-INTR-PRS |
| The yard, [around which that horse runs], is my neighbor's. | ||||||||
Even if huga is the complement of a preposition, it goes before that preposition. (For the usage of yop'syongo, see Prepositions.) When a preposition is preceded by huga in this way, the relative clause is marked by intonation. In transcription this can be marked with commas.
| Genitive in the relative clause | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| T'wassūng-a | [huga-t | mōlluss-a | kangakka-tt-o] | sūda-ppu | udi-tto-ng. |
| neighbor-ABS | [REL.PRON-GEN | horse-ABS | escape-INTR-PST] | trouble-INE | be-INTR-PRS |
| The neighbor, [whose horse ran away], is in trouble. | |||||
| Object of comparison | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| K'ūju | pofōb-ak', | [hug-a | pot'-a | zhok'p'ū-p'so | kūjot | udi-tto-ng], | mōllussa-t | kangakka-∅ | atk'-o. |
| DEM.2SG | man-ERG | [REL.PRON-ABS | 1SG-ABS | smart-COMP | than | be-INTR-PRS] | horse-GEN | escape-INF | let-PST |
| That man, [who I'm smarter than], let his horse escape. | |||||||||
The relative clause otherwise follows the template of the comparative construction, except that the second argument, the relative pronoun in this case, is moved to the beginning of the construction. Just as in the example about obliques, the relative clause is marked by intonation (and commas). This is due to the conjunction kūjot (than) normally requiring a following word, which is now missing.
Purpose clauses
There are several ways in which purpose can be expressed in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo. One way is to have the main event followed by the dependent event with the conjunction hukki between them.
| Pot'-ak' | kad-a | p'ūjudakka-ng | hukki | p'-a | ōno-tt-o | sodak'yoya-ppo |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | fish-ABS | salt-PRES | so.that | it-ABS | not-ACT.INTR-PAST | get.bad-COND |
| I salt the fish so that it will not get bad. | ||||||
If the two verbs have the same agent, the dependent verb can be turned into a simple infinitive with translative case. If the main verb is a verb of movement (such as go, come, etc.), then the dependent verb may alternatively be realized as an adverb infinitive. Both ways are exemplified in the following two sentences:
| Pot'-ak' | nūjug-a | up-pa-k'p'o | pingketti-dö | pöttü-tt-ö |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | food-ABS | buy-ACT.ADV.INF-TRANSL | market-ALL | go-ACT.INTR-PAST |
| I went to the market to buy food. | ||||
| Pot'-ak' | nūjug-a | upk'wa-∅-k'p'o | pingketti-dö | pöttü-tt-ö |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ERG | food-ABS | buy-ACT.INF-TRANSL | market-ALL | go-ACT.INTR-PAST |
| I went to the market to buy food. | ||||
Another way is to have a noun (or deverbal noun) followed by the postposition rangk'ōt.
Reported speech
To report what someone else has said, the construction X-ERG V (ökkü) QUOTE is used, where X is the source of information, V is a verb like say, tell, etc. (in active voice; with tense, aspect and mood as appropriate), and QUOTE is an independent clause. If the report is in direct speech, the particle ökkü will be used. If the report is in indirect speech, ökkü is not used, and the deictic center in the quote is changed to that of the speaker.
Evidentiality
Evidentiality marking is not obligatory in Proto-Kunnu-lūjungo, but what kind of evidence one has for the truthfulness of a statement can be expressed with a pronoun in the genitive case, followed by one of three evidentiality verbs in the instructive infinitive form. The pronoun specifies who is claiming something to be true, and the verb specifies the type of evidence. This construction precedes the main verb (or auxiliary + main verb construction).
| Evidentiality type | Morphology |
|---|---|
| Inferential | PRON t'yamchyōt |
| Reportative | PRON kwetwüt |
| Direct knowledge | (PRON) k'ofōk'ōt |
The inferential means that the statement is something that has been witnessed, and reportative is used for hearsay evidence. The direct knowledge evidential is used about any other evidence, including non-visual sensory. The dirent knowledge evidential can also be used impersonally, which is marked by the absense of a pronoun. The impersonal direct knowledge can have the meaning "they say that..." without any clarifications of who "they" are, or it can have the meaning that something is supposed to be common knowledge, "anyone knows it". All second person evidentials are very seldomly used; usually they occur in questions and sometimes when arguing against someone who claims to not have known a certain thing. The second person singular pronoun can be, and is usually, replaced by the name of the adressee in genitive case.
| P'oga-g-a | pot'ya-t | k'ofōk'-ōt | ōno | tōtk'yu-tto-∅ |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| pig-PL-ABS | 1SG-GEN | know-INSTR.INF | NEG | fly-INTR-HAB |
| As far as I know, pigs don't fly. | ||||
| Pot'ya-du | mōllussan | p'ot'ya-t | kwet-wüt | ōno-tto-ng | udi-∅ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG-ADE | horse | 2SG-GEN | hear-INSTR.INF | NEG-INTR-PRS | be-INF |
| As you have heard, I do not have a horse. | |||||
Lexicon
San words
Some adjectives and some nouns ends with the suffix -(s)san or -(s)sen. In adjectives it is usually present because of word derivation. In nouns it may occur due to derivation, but sometimes it just does not have any specific meaning. In various kinds of suffixation, the san words usually inflect slightly differently than other words.
Compounds
In endocentric compounds, the head is the last word of the compound. All but the last words in a compound have the following characteristics:
- Verbs can only appear in non-final forms
- Nouns sometimes carry a case that the final word in the compound calls for. But nouns in some compounds have the genitive case for no particular reason.
- The -(s)san or -(s)sen suffix is deleted.
- Some words have a special compound form, see Derivation below.
Derivation
Unless otherwise stated, the suffix in san words is deleted before one of the derivational suffixes below are added. When san words are treated differently, what the whole end of the word turns into is shown. So for example mōllussan (horse) with the suffix -ballossan (see -ballossan below) becomes mōlluspallossan (horse-like), but with the suffix -kkut it just becomes mōllukkut (horseless).
| Affix | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Verb → verb | ||
| ado-- | Underdo X | anglofutsocha - estimate → ado-anglofutsocha - under-estimate |
| hütwūt-- | Redoing an action | kōngk'utsa - tell → hütwūt-kōngk'utsa - renarrate |
| ōsya-- | The opposite of the action | p'ūjucha - let good things happen to others → ōsya-p'ūjucha - not let good things happen to others |
| p'ada-- | Do X in secret | kwettödi - listen → p'ada-kwettödi - eavesdrop |
| unno-- | Miss doing X | ap'sūja - shoot → unno-ap'sūja - shoot and miss |
| -mk'wa1 -mk'we1 |
Diminishes the intensity of an action, or makes it momentane | kakp'utsa - look → kakp'umk'wa - glance millūgūttö - bark → millūgūmk'we - bark once |
| Verb → noun | ||
| -bu | Place where X is done (derived word often has num. clf. flat) | t'yamk'ya - show → t'yamk'yabu - stage |
| -būp1 | A simple deverbal noun, usually used about actions that take some time to complete (derived word often has num. clf. abstract) | kōngk'utsa - tell → kōngk'ubūp - story |
| -gō1 -kwü1 |
Device that performs X | kunglakka - substitute (V.) → kunglagō - substitute (N.) ködūji - float → ködūkwü - floating device |
| -ha1 -he1 |
Doer of X (num. clf. people) | kyot'sōya - bathe → kyot'sōha - bather ihikködi - think → ihikköhe - thinker |
| -ofu -öfu |
Noun somehow related to the verb | ok'yu - sprout → ok'ofu - spore mönekkue - throw → mönekköfu - dump |
| -ot1 -öt1 |
Tool used for doing X | kūt'kōna - traverse → kūt'kot - vehicle swügutsöche - sting → swügutsöt - stinger |
| -ōt'pa -wüt'pe |
Result of verb (derived word often has num. clf. abstract) | t'yamk'ya - show (V.) → t'yamk'ōt'pa - show (N.) |
| -pya1 -pye1 |
Default verb to noun derivation | ōtyu - live → ōpya - life kūjudi - die → kūjupye - death |
| -tk'u1 | Deverbal noun which implies of some kind of large occurrence | ūpkutsa - believe → ūpkutk'u - religion |
| -tta1 -tte1 |
Deverbal form of sound verb (derived word will have num. clf. abstract) | mongt'ūtto - neigh → mongt'ūtta - neighing millūgūttö - bark → millūgūtte - barking |
| -u | Single instance of an act | tōtk'yu - fly → tōtk'u - flight |
| -ū | Deverbal form of frequentative verbs | tahokkadu - sort → tahokkadū - sorting |
| -ūjō1 -ūjwü1 |
Collective deverbal noun (derived word will have num. clf. collective) | kūt'kōna - traverse → kūt'kūjō - procession |
| Verb → adjective | ||
| -ossan -össen |
Someone or something that does X, an action that spreads out over time | k'ofōk'yu - know → k'ofōk'ossan - aware |
| See also Participles, which are the usual way verbs are turned into adjective-like words | ||
| Noun → verb | ||
| -kka (san word → -ska) -kke (san word → -ske) |
Default noun to verb derivation | pwado - paint (N.) → pwadokka - paint (V.) sillegi - patch (N.) → sillegikke - patch (V.) |
| -k'ye (san word → -sk'ye) -k'ya (san word → -sk'ya) |
Make into X, or add X | kikku - roof → kikkuk'ye - add a roof to a building k'aido - wind → k'aidok'ya - ventilate; fan |
| -k'yoya (san word → -sk'yoya) -k'yöye (san word → -sk'yöye) |
Become X | pwa - earth → pwak'yoya - decompose swe - tree → swek'yöye - become numb (literally "turn into wood") |
| -(ō)pk'wa -(wü)pk'we |
Hunt or collect something edible | kada - fish (N.) → kadapk'wa - fish (V.) sungkitti - carrot → sungkittipk'we - pick carrots |
| -utsocha (san word → -ssutsocha) -utsöche (san word → -ssutsöche) |
Do something using X | rappanga - hammer (N.) → rappangutsocha - hammer (V.) mefögi - sand (N.) → mefögutsöche - sand (V.) |
| Noun → noun | ||
| ada-- | Bottom, low | köngup - floor → ada-göngup - bottom floor |
| aip-- | New | kwe - moon → aip-kwe - new moon |
| allu-- | Open, bare | pōngo - sea → allu-bōngo - open sea |
| chūföt'-- | Double (derived word will have num. clf. pair) | ittup - portion → chūföt'-ittup - double portion |
| hyat'ko-- | After | kunglakkōt'pa - compensation → hyat'ko-gunglakkōt'pa - compensation afterwards |
| ingke-- | Arch-X | ronnadassan - enemy → ingke-lonnadassan - arch-enemy |
| kōpko-- | Middle | p'ungpo - finger → kōpko-p'ungpo - middle finger |
| kōt'k'a-- | Yellow | rüpk'üngüge - white wagtail → kōt'k'a-rüpk'üngüge - yellow wagtail |
| kutk'yunga-- | Opposing force | k'aido - wind → kutk'yunga-k'aido - headwind |
| k'aga-- | Back | ullo - door → k'aga-ullo - back door |
| k'ōgu-- | Artificial | p'yu - reason → k'ōgu-p'yu - pretext |
| k'yayop-- | Full | kwe - moon → k'yayop-kwe - full moon |
| mūjessū-- | Top | p'ūjungapk'yabūp - performance → mūjessū-p'ūjungapk'yabūp - top performance |
| nūpku-- | Brown | tōmk'o - leaf → nūpku-dōmk'o - brown autumn leaf |
| ogo-- | Forever | k'at'lo - winter → ogo-k'at'lo → neverending winter |
| okp'ō-- | Self | sökku - betrayal → okp'ō-zökku - self-deception |
| ōkkū-- | Front | hat'kak - legs → ōkkū-hat'kak - forelegs |
| ōk'ya-- | Remote | |
| ōppo-- | Front, first | pöngke - sign → ōppo-böngke - (good) example |
| ōtp'o-- | Debute | kōngk'a - time → ōtp'o-gōngk'a - first time |
| ōshk'yunga-- | Extra | t'yamk'ōt'pa - show → ōshk'yunga-t'yamk'ōt'pa - encore |
| ōzhu-- | Outer | p'ollū - side → ōzhu-p'ollū - outside |
| pūpk'a-- | Black | pigingi - sausage → pūpk'a-bigingi - black sausage |
| p'ada-- | Secret | pūngma - murder → p'ada-būngma - assassination |
| p'aing-- | Large | sōngmō - family → p'aing-sōngmō - large family |
| p'ollū-- | Side | hugo - river → p'ollū-hugo - tributary |
| p'op'ya-- | Inner | ōdot - organ → p'op'ya-ōdot - inner organ |
| p'otto-- | Blue | syonyupk'wo - tail → p'otto-syonyupk'wo - red-flanked bluetail |
| p'yonghya-- | Back, remote | p'ōnūkkū - area → p'yonghya-p'ōnūkkū - place in the sticks |
| radō-- | Fake | appū - dress → radō-appū - disguise |
| ranga-- | Precaution, spare | uppa - part → ranga-uppa - spare part |
| rat'ku-- | White | mallo - shark → rat'ku-mallo - great white shark |
| ronnōng-- | Green | kaplofu - plant → ronnōng-kaplofu - flowerless plant with leaves |
| segū-- | Small (num. clf. small) | nūjuga - food → segū-nūjuga - snack |
| sōngūp-- | Basic | k'ofōk'u - knowledge → sōngūp-k'ofōk'u - basic knowledge |
| sutyo-- | Many | k'ofōha - sage → sutyo-k'ofōha - polymath |
| sūjudo-- | Half | kwe - moon → sūjudo-kwe - half-moon |
| sūtta-- | Red | notk'a - chest → sūtta-notk'a - robin |
| sya-- | Head, important | killūssigu - city → sya-gillūssigu - capital |
| tyanno-- | Near | k'ūllaip - future → tyanno-k'ūllaip - near future |
| ūp'so-- | Closed | p'ūjudo - intestine → ūp'so-p'ūjudo - appendix |
| yotya-- | Upper, top | sūjudo - half → yotya-zūjudo - topside |
| -da -de |
Place associated with X (derived word often has num. clf. flat) | jōttu - agricultural people → jōttuda - cultivated land |
| -dallossan (san word → -stallossan) -dellössen (san word → -stellössen) |
Person from X (num. clf. people) | Kunnu-lūjungo - Kunnu-lūjungo → Kunnu-lūjungodallossan - Kunnu-lūjungoan mönekköfu - dump → mönekköfudellössen - person living in a dump |
| -gi -gu |
Diminutive form (derived word often has num. clf. small or round) | sungkitti - carrot → sungkittigi - small carrot tap'so - pond → tap'sogu - puddle |
| -gō (san word → -skō) -kwü (san word → -skwü) |
Small thing with Xs (derived word often has num. clf. small or round) | p'ūjuda - salt → p'ūjudagō - food preserved by salting sede - pipe → sedekwü - hemp-nettle |
| -gu | Place with lots of Xs, collective X, or something associated with X (num. clf. collective) | zap'zū - bamboo → zap'zūgu - bamboo thicket |
| -(k)kang -(k)keng |
Female X (num. clf. people) | p'atkango - hero → p'atkangokkang - heroine sisse - priest → sissekkeng - priestess |
| -(ō)ngo -(wü)ngö |
Tool or person (num. clf. people) that uses X | t'waba - face → t'wabango - mask tillūkki - raft → tillūkkingö - ferry man |
| -ofu (san word → -ssofu) -öfu (san word → -ssöfu) |
Thing with Xs | uppa - part → uppofu - share |
| -(o)pk'u (san word → -sk'u) -(ö)pk'u (san word → -sk'u) |
Place with collection of X (derived word will have num. clf. collective) | t'wassūngo - neighbor → t'wassūngopk'u - neighborhood |
| -(o)tku -(ö)tku |
Natural features that is like X | k'appō - plane → k'appōtku - plain |
| Noun → adjective | ||
| ap'zo--NOUN-ossan | Both | kyappo - hand → ap'zo-kyappossan - ambi-dextrous |
| sutyo--NOUN-X2 | Many | allofu - marriage → sutyo-allofossan - polygamistic |
| -ballossan (san word → -spallossan) -bellössen (san word → -spellössen) |
Resembling X | kada - fish → kadaballossan - fishlike k'wik'wö - girl → k'wik'wöbellössen - girly |
| -dessen -dassan |
X-like, endowed with X, time, or measure | set'kū - dot → set'kūdessen - dotted kutsūnga - cupped hand → kutsūngadassan - handful |
| -dutsessen -dutsassan |
Often X-like | millūgūtte - barking → millūgūttedutsessen - often barking |
| -gap -gep |
Equipped with X | mūjudo - worry → mūjudogap - worried kūttefi - honor → kūttefigep - honorable |
| -kkut | Lacking X | swe - tree → swekkut - treeless |
| -oppa -öppe |
Something that produces X | p'akku - harvest → p'akkoppa - bountyful harvest k'izu - kill (N.) → k'izöppe - someone with many kills |
| -ossan -össen |
Regular noun to adjective derivation | odu - joy → odossan - happy mefögi - sand → mefögössen - sandy |
| -zok'ossan (-sok'ossan, san word → -ssok'ossan) -zök'össen (-sök'össen, san word → -ssök'össen) |
Something that contains a substance | kūt'k'a - gold → kūt'k'azok'ossan - something (e.g. a river) that contains gold mefögi - sand → mefögizök'össen - something (e.g. mud) that contains sand |
| -ssan -ssen |
Made from X | kūt'k'a - gold → kūt'k'assan - golden swe - tree → swessen - wooden |
| Noun → adverb | ||
| -ekkillet (san word → -ssekkillet) -akkullat (san word → -ssakkullat) |
From an X point of view | jōttu - agricultural people → jōttakkullat - from agricultural people's point of view |
| -gillet -gullat |
Locative situative adverb (involving two things in relation to each other) | t'ūngki - corner → t'ūngkigillet - corner-to-corner kaplu - face → kaplugullat - face-to-face |
| -(k)killet -(k)kullat |
Manner or position | tönegebūp - play → tönegebūpkillet - not seriously p'ollū - side → p'ollūkkullat - sideways |
| Adjective → verb | ||
| -∅ | Be X | sūttallossan - red → sūttallossan - be red tübet → tübet - be warm |
| -(p)k'wa (san word → -sk'wa) -(p)k'we (san word → -sk'we) |
Make into X | sūttallossan - red → sūttallosk'wa - redden tübet - warm (Adj.) → tübetk'we - warm (V.) |
| Adjective → noun | ||
| -∅ (no change to san words either) | Person with X quality (derived word will have num. clf. people) | nogap - rich (Adj.) → nogap - rich person |
| -aip (san word → -ssaip) -ip (san word → -ssip) |
The X quality (derived word will have num. clf. abstract) | sūttallossan - red → sūttallossaip - redness tübet - warm → tübedip - warmth |
| -ūngo -ūngö |
Person who is being X (derived word will usually have num. clf. people | tallopka - lazy → tallopkūngo - lazy person |
| Adjective → adjective | ||
| kutk'yunga-- | Opposing force | k'ūjulla - productive → kutk'yunga-k'ūjulla - counter-productive |
| ogo-- | Forever | ratma - old → ogo-ratma → really, really old |
| okp'ō-- | Self | k'ūnnoppa - destructive → okp'ō-k'ūnnoppa - self-destructive |
| ōsya-- | Opposite quality | p'ōt'lya - clear → ōsya-p'ōt'lya - unclear |
| ryamya-- | Little | tūbossan - snowy → ryamya-dūbossan - only little snowy |
| tyasso-- | Thoroughly | ryangokkak'p'o k'ūttūk - dyed → tyasso-lyangokkak'p'o k'ūttūk - thoroughly dyed |
| ūp'so-- | Completely | myūdū - crazy → ūp'so-myūdū - absolutely crazy |
| -dutsessen -dutsassan |
Someone or something that is often X-like | negettüzessen - broken → negettüzedutsessen - often broken mochap - slow → mochaptutsassan - often slow |
| -mku (san word → -samku, -semku) | Diminishes the quality | mochap - slow → mochamku - slowish |
| -ossan3 -össen3 |
Tendency to be like X (only used on present participles) | k'allossūlla - bending → k'allossūllossan - flexible negefak'p'ö k'ūlle - getting broken → negefak'p'ö k'ūllössen - fragile |
| Adjective → adverb | ||
| -pk'o (san word → -sap'ko) -pk'ö (san word → -sepk'ö) |
Regular adjective to adverb derivation | mochap - slow → mochapk'o - slowly tūjutk'udessen - natural → tūjutk'udessepk'ö - naturally |
| -wa -we |
Used on a few adjectives to turn them into adverbs of manner | mot'hallossan - silent → mot'harwa - silently |
| Adverb → verb | ||
| -ōkka -wükke |
Derives an intransitive verb meaning that something happens in a specific way | mat'ko (in half) → mat'kōkka (break apart) öttöbüt (more) → öttöpwükke (become more) |
| Numeral → noun | ||
| -ofu -ssöfu |
Shape with X number of sides (2D or 3D) | kut'pō - three → kut'pofu - triangle kwibössen - ten → *kwibössöfu4 - decagon |
| Numeral → adverb | ||
| -akkullat -ssekkillet |
Xs of | p'akka - one hundred → p'akkakkullat - hundreds of kwibössen - ten → kwibössekkillet - tens of |
1The last syllable is deleted before this suffix is added, unless the last syllable consisted of a monosyllabic derivational suffix.
2The X stands for any derivational suffix that turns a noun into an adjective.
3In case of the present passive participle, this suffix is added to the auxiliary verb.
4Theoretical word.
