Vrkhazhian: Difference between revisions
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Vrkhazhian (''Śād | Vrkhazhian (''Śād Warḫāsaḫ'' "Mouth of Vrkhazh") is a language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhians who live in [[The Vrkhazhians|Warḫāsam]]. | ||
{{infobox | {{infobox | ||
|image=VrkhazhianFlagSRLT.png | |image=VrkhazhianFlagSRLT.png | ||
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|bg=#32cdcd | |bg=#32cdcd | ||
|name=Vrkhazhian | |name=Vrkhazhian | ||
|native=Śād | |native=Śād Warḫāsaḫ, Warḫāsāli | ||
|pronounce=[ | |pronounce=[ˈɬɑːd wɑr.ˈxɑː.sɑx], [wɑr.xɑː.ˈsɑː.li] | ||
|in=Vrkhazh ( | |in=Vrkhazh (Warḫāsam) | ||
|script= | |script=Añmānas | ||
|tree= | |tree=Proto-Ch'ahdic | ||
: | :Proto-A | ||
::''' | ::Proto-AA | ||
:::Proto-AAA | |||
::::Old Vrkhazhian | |||
:::::'''Imperial Vrkh.''' | |||
:::::'''Common Vrkh.''' | |||
|morph=agglutinative, triconsonantal root-based morphology | |morph=agglutinative, triconsonantal root-based morphology | ||
|ms=nominative-accusative | |ms=nominative-accusative | ||
|wo= | |wo=Free word order, but typically verb-initial | ||
|creator=[[User:Ahzoh|Malcolm G. Holborne]]}} | |creator=[[User:Ahzoh|Malcolm G. Holborne]]}} | ||
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Vrkhazhian is divided into two primary registers: | Vrkhazhian is divided into two primary registers: | ||
* Imperial Vrkhazhian (''' | * Imperial Vrkhazhian ('''Ḳabbāˀas''' ''"The Royal [Speech]"'') is the written variety of Vrkhazhian based upon a dialect of Old Vrkhazhian spoken by the founder of the Empire, Ezu-Nardikh the Great, and his supporters. | ||
* Common Vrkhazhian (''' | * Common Vrkhazhian ('''Lumbāˀas''' ''"The Common [Speech]"'') is the spoken variety based around the dialect of the capital city of Uzur. | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
The table below shows the | The table below shows the 25 consonant phonemes found in Vrkhazhian. Letters in angle brackets indicate where the romanization of the phoneme differs from its IPA representation. | ||
{|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;" | {|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width: 8em;" rowspan="2" colspan="2" | | ! style="width: 8em;" rowspan="2" colspan="2" | | ||
! style="width: | ! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Bilabial | ||
! | ! colspan="2" | Coronal | ||
! style="width: | ! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Velar | ||
! style="width: | ! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Glottal | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="font-size: smaller" | Central | ! style="width: 4em; font-size: smaller" | Central | ||
! style="font-size: smaller" | Lateral | ! style="width: 4em; font-size: smaller" | Lateral | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | Nasal | ! colspan="2" | Nasal | ||
Line 45: | Line 49: | ||
| n | | n | ||
| | | | ||
| ŋ ⟨''''' | | ŋ ⟨'''''n̮'''''⟩ | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
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! style="font-size: smaller" | Ejective | ! style="font-size: smaller" | Ejective | ||
| pʼ ⟨'''''ṗ'''''⟩ | | pʼ ⟨'''''ṗ'''''⟩ | ||
| tʼ ⟨'''''ṭ'''''⟩ | | tʼ ⟨'''''ṭ'''''⟩ | ||
| | | | ||
| kʼ ⟨'''''ḳ'''''⟩ | | kʼ ⟨'''''ḳ'''''⟩ | ||
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| g | | g | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=" | ! rowspan="3" | Fricative | ||
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiceless | ! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiceless | ||
| f | | f | ||
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| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="font-size: smaller" | | ! style="font-size: smaller" | Ejective | ||
| | | | ||
| | | sʼ ⟨'''''ṣ'''''⟩ | ||
| | | ɬʼ ⟨'''''ṣ́'''''⟩ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiced | ||
| | | | ||
| z | |||
| ɮ ⟨'''''ź'''''⟩ | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | Liquid | ||
| | | | ||
| r | | r | ||
| l | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" | Semivowel | |||
| w | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| j ⟨'''''y'''''⟩ | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
All consonants except for /j w ʔ/ can be geminated (pronounced twice as long) which is indicated in writing by simply doubling the letter. | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
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|} | |} | ||
The short vowels /ɛ ɑ i u/ are represented in writing as ⟨e a i u⟩ while the long vowels /ɛː ɑː iː uː/ are either represented with a macron ⟨ē, ā, ī, ū⟩ or a circumflex ⟨ê, â, î, û⟩. The usage of a circumflex in writing is to indicate vowel coalescence as a result of the contraction of the weak consonants /ʔ j w/. | |||
===Allophony=== | ===Allophony=== | ||
====Plosives==== | ====Plosives==== | ||
*The plosives /p b t d k g/ assimilate in voicing when they precede a plosive of the same place of articulation. An example of this allophony is demonstrated with the | *The plosives /p b t d k g/ assimilate in voicing when they precede a plosive of the same place of articulation. An example of this allophony is demonstrated with the verb '''alad-''' "fight, oppose": under normal circumstances its stem is '''alad-''' such as in '''aladna''' "I fought, I opposed"; however, when, for example, the first person plural subject suffix '''-ta''' is added, it becomes '''alatta''' "we fought, we opposed" | ||
*The plosives /t d k g/ also assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede fricatives of the same place of articulation | *The plosives /p b t d k g/ also assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede fricatives of the same place of articulation | ||
====Nasals==== | ====Nasals==== | ||
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! Result | ! Result | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | b + p | ||
| rowspan="2" | pp | | rowspan="2" | pp | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | m + p | ||
|- | |- | ||
| p + b | | p + b | ||
| rowspan="2" | bb | | rowspan="2" | bb | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | m + b | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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! Result | ! Result | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | d + t | ||
| rowspan="2" | tt | | rowspan="2" | tt | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | n + t | ||
|- | |- | ||
| t + d | | t + d | ||
| rowspan="2" | dd | | rowspan="2" | dd | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | n + d | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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! Result | ! Result | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | g + k | ||
| rowspan="2" | kk | | rowspan="2" | kk | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | n̮ + k | ||
|- | |- | ||
| k + g | | k + g | ||
| rowspan="2" | gg | | rowspan="2" | gg | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | n̮ + g | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| rowspan="3" | ff | | rowspan="3" | ff | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | b + f | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | m + f | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| rowspan="3" | ss | | rowspan="3" | ss | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | d + s | ||
|- | |||
| n + s | |||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
| t + z | | t + z | ||
| rowspan="3" | zz | | rowspan="3" | zz | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | d + z | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | n + z | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| rowspan="3" | śś | | rowspan="3" | śś | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | d + ś | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | n + ś | ||
|- | |- | ||
| t + | | t + ź | ||
| rowspan="3" | | | rowspan="3" | źź | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | d + ź | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | n + ź | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| rowspan="3" | ḫḫ | | rowspan="3" | ḫḫ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | g + ḫ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | n̮ + ḫ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{{main|Nouns in Vrkhazhian}} | {{main|Nouns in Vrkhazhian}} | ||
Vrkhazhian nouns are called '''ğanūm''' (singular '''ğanum'''). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are four cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. When referring to humans, deities, and certain animals, masculine refers to beings and animals of the male sex as well as beings that identify with the male gender while feminine refers to beings and animals of the female sex as well as beings that identify with the female gender. When referring to non-humans, masculine refers to wild or dangerous animals (e.g. ''' | Vrkhazhian nouns are called '''ğanūm''' (singular '''ğanum'''). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are four cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. When referring to humans, deities, and certain animals, masculine refers to beings and animals of the male sex as well as beings that identify with the male gender while feminine refers to beings and animals of the female sex as well as beings that identify with the female gender. When referring to non-humans, masculine refers to wild or dangerous animals (e.g. '''sammali''' "crocodile") or inanimate non-living things (e.g. '''adgi''' "sand") while feminine refers to domesticated or safe animals (e.g. '''ḫusu''' "horse") or more animate non-living things (e.g. '''masû''' "sea"). | ||
====Verbal morphology==== | ====Verbal morphology==== | ||
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Like English, Vrkhazhian makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these' known as "proximal") and far ('that, those' known as "distal") demonstrative expressions. Besides number, as in English, Vrkhazhian also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender as well as case. | Like English, Vrkhazhian makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these' known as "proximal") and far ('that, those' known as "distal") demonstrative expressions. Besides number, as in English, Vrkhazhian also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender as well as case. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" | ||
|+ | |+Proximal Demonstrative ("this", "these") | ||
|- | |||
! style="width: 6em;" rowspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="2" | Feminine | |||
! colspan="2" | Masculine | |||
! colspan="2" | Neuter | |||
! colspan="2" | Inanimate | |||
|- | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
| ''aḫḫ-um'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-ūwa'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-im'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-īya'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-am'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-āya'' | |||
| rowspan="2" | ''aḫḫ-as'' | |||
| rowspan="2" | ''aḫḫ-āsa'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Accusative | ||
| ''aḫḫ-us'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-ūsa'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-is'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-īsa'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-as'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-āsa'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Ergative | ||
| ''aḫḫ-un'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-ūna'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-in'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-īna'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-an'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-āna'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-an'' | |||
| ''aḫḫ-āna'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Genitive | ||
| ''aḫḫ-uḫ'' | |||
| '' | | ''aḫḫ-ūwa'' | ||
| '' | | ''aḫḫ-iḫ'' | ||
| '' | | ''aḫḫ-īya'' | ||
| '' | | ''aḫḫ-aḫ'' | ||
| '' | | ''aḫḫ-āya'' | ||
| '' | | ''aḫḫ-aḫ'' | ||
| ''aḫḫ-āya'' | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" | |||
|+Distal Demonstrative ("that", "those") | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="width: 6em;" rowspan="2" | | ||
! colspan="2" | Feminine | |||
| | ! colspan="2" | Masculine | ||
| | ! colspan="2" | Neuter | ||
| | ! colspan="2" | Inanimate | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | ||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Nominative | ||
| ''idd-um'' | |||
| '' | | ''idd-ūwa'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-im'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-īya'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-am'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-āya'' | ||
| '' | | rowspan="2" | ''idd-as'' | ||
| rowspan="2" | ''idd-āsa'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Accusative | ||
| '' | | ''idd-us'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-ūsa'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-is'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-īsa'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-as'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-āsa'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Ergative | ||
| '' | | ''idd-un'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-ūna'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-in'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-īna'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-an'' | ||
| '' | | ''idd-āna'' | ||
| ''idd-an'' | |||
| ''idd-āna'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | |||
| ''idd-uḫ'' | |||
| ''idd-ūwa'' | |||
| ''idd-iḫ'' | |||
| ''idd-īya'' | |||
| ''idd-aḫ'' | |||
| ''idd-āya'' | |||
| ''idd-aḫ'' | |||
| ''idd-āya'' | |||
|- | |||
|} | |} | ||
=====Interrogative | ===Pronouns=== | ||
Vrkhazhian possesses a simple set of interrrogative | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" | ||
|+ Imperial Vrkhazhian Pronouns | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" | | |||
! colspan="8" | Independent | |||
! colspan="2" | Bound | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="4" | Nominative | |||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Accusative | |||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Ergative | |||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Possessive | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" | Affirmative | |||
! colspan="2" | Negative | |||
|- | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Person | |||
! style="width: 5.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 5.2em;" | Plural | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | |||
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | |||
|- | |||
! 1st | |||
| ''āni'', ''īni'' | |||
| ''āti'', ''īti'' | |||
| ''tunni'' | |||
| ''tutti'' | |||
| ''nêsi'' | |||
| ''têsi'' | |||
| ''nêni'' | |||
| ''têni'' | |||
| ''-ni'' | |||
| ''-ti'' | |||
|- | |||
! 2nd | |||
| ''āma'', ''īma'' | |||
| ''āman'', ''īman'' | |||
| ''tumma'' | |||
| ''tumman'' | |||
| ''mêsi'' | |||
| ''mināsi'' | |||
| ''mêni'' | |||
| ''mināni'' | |||
| ''-mi'' | |||
| ''-min'' | |||
|- | |||
! 3rd | |||
| ''āsa'', ''īsa'' | |||
| ''āsan'', ''īsan'' | |||
| ''tussa'' | |||
| ''tussan'' | |||
| ''kêsi'' | |||
| ''kināsi'' | |||
| ''kêni'' | |||
| ''kināni'' | |||
| ''-ki'' | |||
| ''-kin'' | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
=====Interrogative and Relative Pronouns===== | |||
Vrkhazhian possesses a simple set of interrrogative pronouns that also serve as relative pronouns: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | | ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | Feminine | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | Masculine | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | Neuter | ||
! colspan="2" | Inanimate | |||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | ||
! | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular | ||
| | ! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="width: 7em;" rowspan="4" | "Who / What" | ||
| '' | ! style="width: 6em;" | Nominative | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-um'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-ūwa'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-im'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-īya'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-am'' | ||
| ''ḫamt-āya'' | |||
| rowspan="2" | ''ḫamt-as'' | |||
| rowspan="2" | ''ḫamt-āsa'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Accusative | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-us'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-ūsa'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-is'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-īsa'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-as'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-āsa'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Ergative | ||
| ''ḫamt-un'' | |||
| ''ḫamt-ūna'' | |||
| ''ḫamt-in'' | |||
| ''ḫamt-īna'' | |||
| ''ḫamt-an'' | |||
| ''ḫamt-āna'' | |||
| ''ḫamt-an'' | |||
| ''ḫamt-āna'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Genitive | ||
| ''ḫamt-uḫ'' | |||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-ūwa'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-iḫ'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-īya'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-aḫ'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-āya'' | ||
| '' | | ''ḫamt-aḫ'' | ||
| ''ḫamt-āya'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! colspan="10" | | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="4" | "How Many" | ||
| '' | ! Nominative | ||
| '' | | ''???'' | ||
| '' | | ''???'' | ||
| '' | | ''???'' | ||
| '' | | ''???'' | ||
| '' | | ''???'' | ||
| ''???'' | |||
| ''???'' | |||
| ''???'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Accusative | ||
| | | ''???'' | ||
| ''???'' | |||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
Line 485: | Line 603: | ||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Ergative | ||
| ''???'' | |||
| ''???'' | |||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
Line 493: | Line 613: | ||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Genitive | ||
| ''???'' | |||
| ''???'' | |||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
Line 500: | Line 622: | ||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
| ''???'' | | ''???'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 642: | Line 667: | ||
! | ! | ||
! 6 | ! 6 | ||
| '' | | ''taftas'' | ||
| ''taffat-'' | | ''taffat-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 657: | Line 682: | ||
! | ! | ||
! 9 | ! 9 | ||
| '' | | ''nuḫras'' | ||
| ''naḫḫar-'' | | ''naḫḫar-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! | ||
! X | ! X | ||
| '' | | ''???'' | ||
| '' | | ''???'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! | ||
Line 682: | Line 707: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''śimās'' || Align="center" | ''aḫās'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| house-<span class="smallcaps">nom.inan.sg</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom.inan.sg</span> | | house-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" colspan='2'| this house | | Align="center" colspan='2'| this house | ||
Line 691: | Line 716: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | ''śimās'' || Align="center" | ''mannabās'' || Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''śimās'' || Align="center" | ''mannabās'' || Align="center" | ''aḫās'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| house-<span class="smallcaps">nom.inan.pl</span> || beautiful-<span class="smallcaps">nom.inan.pl</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom.inan.pl</span> | | house-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span> || beautiful-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" colspan='3'| these beautiful houses | | Align="center" colspan='3'| these beautiful houses | ||
Line 701: | Line 726: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''tufta'' || Align="center" | ''śimāḫ'' || Align="center" | ''aḫas'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| six | | six-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || house-<span class="smallcaps">gen.inan.pl</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" colspan='3'| these six houses | | Align="center" colspan='3'| these six houses | ||
Line 710: | Line 735: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''tufta'' || Align="center" | ''śimāḫ'' || Align="center" | ''mannabas'' || Align="center" | ''aḫas'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| six | | six-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || house-<span class="smallcaps">gen.inan.pl</span> || beautiful-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.fem.sg</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" colspan='4'| these six beautiful houses | | Align="center" colspan='4'| these six beautiful houses | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
Relative clauses are made by | Relative clauses are made by infixing '''-ēs-''' to the verb subject suffix of the relative clause: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''ḳebbis'' || Align="center" | ''assalmabakki'' || Align="center" | ''māˀaḫtēsi'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| king-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.sg</span> || people\<span class="smallcaps">cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut-</span>put_together<span class="smallcaps">-3ms.rel</span> | | king-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.sg</span> || people\<span class="smallcaps">cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut-</span>put_together<span class="smallcaps">-3ms.rel</span> | ||
Line 727: | Line 752: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
Relative clauses can also be made by the use of the interrogative | Relative clauses can also be made by the use of the interrogative pronoun '''arr-''' "(the one) who", agreeing in number and gender with the main clause's referent. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''assalmabas'' || Align="center" | ''arras'' || Align="center" | ''ḳebbis'' || Align="center" | ''māˀaḫti'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| king-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.sg</span> || who-<span class="smallcaps">nom. | | king-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.sg</span> || who-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>|| people\<span class="smallcaps">cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut-</span>put_together<span class="smallcaps">-3ms</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" colspan='4'| | | Align="center" colspan='4'| the people who the king united | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 740: | Line 765: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''ummuḫdas'' || Align="center" | ''arras'' || Align="center" | ''ku'' || Align="center" | ''rabdāmūs'' || Align="center" | ''taḳūstan'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| palace-<span class="smallcaps">nom.inan.sg</span> || | | palace-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || who-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || at || guards-<span class="smallcaps">nom.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">futi</span>-lie_down-<span class="smallcaps">3fp</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" colspan=' | | Align="center" colspan='5'| the palace where guards might reside | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Sentence syntax==== | ====Sentence syntax==== | ||
The basic word order of Vrkhazhian is SOV. Vrkhazhian has two primary voices, active and | The basic word order of Vrkhazhian is SOV. Vrkhazhian has two primary voices, active and applicative: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''aldāmīs'' || Align="center" | ''ilgūn'' || Align="center" | ''amtan'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| warrior-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.pl</span> || fish-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut</span>-eat\<span class="smallcaps">act</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span> | | warrior-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.pl</span> || fish-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut</span>-eat\<span class="smallcaps">act</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span> | ||
Line 761: | Line 786: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" | '' | | Align="center" | ''aldāmīs'' || Align="center" | ''ḫagrākan'' || Align="center" | ''ilgūn'' || Align="center" | ''āˀamtan'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| fish-<span class="smallcaps"> | | warrior-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.pl</span> || dog-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span> || fish-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut</span>-eat\<span class="smallcaps">appl</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Align="center" colspan=' | | Align="center" colspan='4' | The warriors fed their dogs some fish | ||
|} | |} | ||
The verb root ''' | The verb root '''ñ-m''' (to eat), in the first example, is conjugated for active nonfuture masculine plural in the active sentence agreeing in number and gender with the subject "warriors", while the same verb root in the second example is conjugated in the passive nonfuture feminine plural, agreeing in number and gender with the subject "fish". | ||
==Writing System== | ==Writing System== |
Latest revision as of 14:49, 1 November 2024
Vrkhazhian (Śād Warḫāsaḫ "Mouth of Vrkhazh") is a language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhians who live in Warḫāsam.
Vrkhazhian Śād Warḫāsaḫ, Warḫāsāli | |
---|---|
Pronounced: | [ˈɬɑːd wɑr.ˈxɑː.sɑx], [wɑr.xɑː.ˈsɑː.li] |
Spoken: | Vrkhazh (Warḫāsam) |
Writing system: | Añmānas |
Genealogy: | Proto-Ch'ahdic
|
Typology | |
Morphological type: | agglutinative, triconsonantal root-based morphology |
Morphosyntactic alignment: | nominative-accusative |
Basic word order: | Free word order, but typically verb-initial |
Credits | |
Creator: | Malcolm G. Holborne |
History
Registers
Vrkhazhian is divided into two primary registers:
- Imperial Vrkhazhian (Ḳabbāˀas "The Royal [Speech]") is the written variety of Vrkhazhian based upon a dialect of Old Vrkhazhian spoken by the founder of the Empire, Ezu-Nardikh the Great, and his supporters.
- Common Vrkhazhian (Lumbāˀas "The Common [Speech]") is the spoken variety based around the dialect of the capital city of Uzur.
Phonology
Consonants
The table below shows the 25 consonant phonemes found in Vrkhazhian. Letters in angle brackets indicate where the romanization of the phoneme differs from its IPA representation.
Bilabial | Coronal | Velar | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Central | Lateral | |||||
Nasal | m | n | ŋ ⟨n̮⟩ | |||
Stop | Voiceless | p | t | k | ʔ ⟨ˀ⟩ | |
Ejective | pʼ ⟨ṗ⟩ | tʼ ⟨ṭ⟩ | kʼ ⟨ḳ⟩ | |||
Voiced | b | d | g | |||
Fricative | Voiceless | f | s | ɬ ⟨ś⟩ | x ⟨ḫ⟩ | |
Ejective | sʼ ⟨ṣ⟩ | ɬʼ ⟨ṣ́⟩ | ||||
Voiced | z | ɮ ⟨ź⟩ | ||||
Liquid | r | l | ||||
Semivowel | w | j ⟨y⟩ |
All consonants except for /j w ʔ/ can be geminated (pronounced twice as long) which is indicated in writing by simply doubling the letter.
Vowels
Vrkhazhian possesses the following monophthongs:
Front | Back | |
---|---|---|
Close | i iː | u uː |
Open | ɛ ɛː | ɑ ɑː |
The short vowels /ɛ ɑ i u/ are represented in writing as ⟨e a i u⟩ while the long vowels /ɛː ɑː iː uː/ are either represented with a macron ⟨ē, ā, ī, ū⟩ or a circumflex ⟨ê, â, î, û⟩. The usage of a circumflex in writing is to indicate vowel coalescence as a result of the contraction of the weak consonants /ʔ j w/.
Allophony
Plosives
- The plosives /p b t d k g/ assimilate in voicing when they precede a plosive of the same place of articulation. An example of this allophony is demonstrated with the verb alad- "fight, oppose": under normal circumstances its stem is alad- such as in aladna "I fought, I opposed"; however, when, for example, the first person plural subject suffix -ta is added, it becomes alatta "we fought, we opposed"
- The plosives /p b t d k g/ also assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede fricatives of the same place of articulation
Nasals
- ???
Fricatives
- the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede another fricative of the same place of articulation.
- the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ become affricates word-initially.
Other
- The velar consonants /ŋ k g x/ become partially-rounded [ŋ͗ k̹ g͗ x̹] or fully-rounded [ŋʷ kʷ gʷ xʷ] before back vowels.
Symmetrical Assimilation
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Asymmetrical Assimilation
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Syllable Structure and Prosody
The basic syllable structure is maximally (C)V(V)(C) whereby any syllable can begin with any consonant except for /ʔ/ and any syllable can end with any consonant except for /ʔ j w/. Vrkhazhian strongly dislikes consonant clusters in the onset or coda of a syllable and typically inserts vowels to break the offending clusters. The epenthetic vowels typically mirror the adjacent vowel.
Stress in Vrkhazhian is based on syllable weight, of which there are three degrees: light (V, CV); heavy (CVC, CV̄, CV̂), and superheavy (CV̄C, CV̂C).
Grammar
Morphology
Overview
Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting language, and morphologically, it is a triconsonatal root language: a kind of non-concatenative morphology whereby its roots consist of an abstract set of consonants which a pattern of vowels called transfixes are placed between. Most of these roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two-letter (biliteral) and four-letter (quadriliteral) roots. Very rare, however, are five-letter (pentaliteral) roots, all of which are entirely nouns.
Nominal morphology
- Main article: Nouns in Vrkhazhian
Vrkhazhian nouns are called ğanūm (singular ğanum). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are four cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. When referring to humans, deities, and certain animals, masculine refers to beings and animals of the male sex as well as beings that identify with the male gender while feminine refers to beings and animals of the female sex as well as beings that identify with the female gender. When referring to non-humans, masculine refers to wild or dangerous animals (e.g. sammali "crocodile") or inanimate non-living things (e.g. adgi "sand") while feminine refers to domesticated or safe animals (e.g. ḫusu "horse") or more animate non-living things (e.g. masû "sea").
Verbal morphology
- Main article: Verbs in Vrkhazhian
Vrkhazhian verbs are called narībūm (singular narībum). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root, though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active and passive). There are only two tenses (future and non-future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. Additionally, there are also two moods (indicative and subjunctive) although the indicative is unmarked. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix -am.
When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb p-r-ḫ (to say, to speak). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the first person singular realis, it is called paruḫna because that is the first person singular realis form of the verb.
Adjectival morphology
Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender, case, and number in agreement with the noun they modify.
Most adjectives are derived from verbs and take the form C₁aC₂C₂aC₃. Below is an example adjective derived from the verb s-g-l (to be old) with the meaning of "old":
Nominative | Accusative | Genitive | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Masculine | saggal-im | saggal-īm | saggal-is | saggal-īs | saggal-in | saggal-īn |
Feminine | saggal-um | saggal-ūm | saggal-us | saggal-ūs | saggal-un | saggal-ūn |
Neuter | saggal-as | saggal-ās | saggal-as | saggal-ās | saggal-aḫ | saggal-āḫ |
Demonstrative Adjectives
Like English, Vrkhazhian makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these' known as "proximal") and far ('that, those' known as "distal") demonstrative expressions. Besides number, as in English, Vrkhazhian also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender as well as case.
Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | aḫḫ-um | aḫḫ-ūwa | aḫḫ-im | aḫḫ-īya | aḫḫ-am | aḫḫ-āya | aḫḫ-as | aḫḫ-āsa |
Accusative | aḫḫ-us | aḫḫ-ūsa | aḫḫ-is | aḫḫ-īsa | aḫḫ-as | aḫḫ-āsa | ||
Ergative | aḫḫ-un | aḫḫ-ūna | aḫḫ-in | aḫḫ-īna | aḫḫ-an | aḫḫ-āna | aḫḫ-an | aḫḫ-āna |
Genitive | aḫḫ-uḫ | aḫḫ-ūwa | aḫḫ-iḫ | aḫḫ-īya | aḫḫ-aḫ | aḫḫ-āya | aḫḫ-aḫ | aḫḫ-āya |
Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | idd-um | idd-ūwa | idd-im | idd-īya | idd-am | idd-āya | idd-as | idd-āsa |
Accusative | idd-us | idd-ūsa | idd-is | idd-īsa | idd-as | idd-āsa | ||
Ergative | idd-un | idd-ūna | idd-in | idd-īna | idd-an | idd-āna | idd-an | idd-āna |
Genitive | idd-uḫ | idd-ūwa | idd-iḫ | idd-īya | idd-aḫ | idd-āya | idd-aḫ | idd-āya |
Pronouns
Independent | Bound | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | Accusative | Ergative | Possessive | |||||||
Affirmative | Negative | |||||||||
Person | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
1st | āni, īni | āti, īti | tunni | tutti | nêsi | têsi | nêni | têni | -ni | -ti |
2nd | āma, īma | āman, īman | tumma | tumman | mêsi | mināsi | mêni | mināni | -mi | -min |
3rd | āsa, īsa | āsan, īsan | tussa | tussan | kêsi | kināsi | kêni | kināni | -ki | -kin |
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns
Vrkhazhian possesses a simple set of interrrogative pronouns that also serve as relative pronouns:
Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | Inanimate | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
"Who / What" | Nominative | ḫamt-um | ḫamt-ūwa | ḫamt-im | ḫamt-īya | ḫamt-am | ḫamt-āya | ḫamt-as | ḫamt-āsa |
Accusative | ḫamt-us | ḫamt-ūsa | ḫamt-is | ḫamt-īsa | ḫamt-as | ḫamt-āsa | |||
Ergative | ḫamt-un | ḫamt-ūna | ḫamt-in | ḫamt-īna | ḫamt-an | ḫamt-āna | ḫamt-an | ḫamt-āna | |
Genitive | ḫamt-uḫ | ḫamt-ūwa | ḫamt-iḫ | ḫamt-īya | ḫamt-aḫ | ḫamt-āya | ḫamt-aḫ | ḫamt-āya | |
"How Many" | Nominative | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? |
Accusative | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | |
Ergative | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | |
Genitive | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? | ??? |
Numerals
Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩.
Numerals behave like noun/pronouns.
The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.
Syntax
- Main article: Syntax in Vrkhazhian
Nominal phrases
Noun phrases have the following overall order: (numeral) noun (genitive noun) (adjective/relative clause) (demonstratives)
śimās | aḫās |
house-nom/acc.inan.sg | this-nom/acc.inan.sg |
this house |
śimās | mannabās | aḫās |
house-nom/acc.inan.pl | beautiful-nom/acc.inan.pl | this-nom/acc.inan.pl |
these beautiful houses |
Numerals behave like nouns, thus when they are used to quantify another noun they are placed in the construct state. In turn, determiners and adjectives agree in gender and number with the numeral rather than the possessing noun.
tufta | śimāḫ | aḫas |
six-nom/acc.inan.sg | house-gen.inan.pl | this-nom/acc.inan.sg |
these six houses |
tufta | śimāḫ | mannabas | aḫas |
six-nom/acc.inan.sg | house-gen.inan.pl | beautiful-nom/acc.fem.sg | this-nom/acc.inan.sg |
these six beautiful houses |
Relative clauses are made by infixing -ēs- to the verb subject suffix of the relative clause:
ḳebbis | assalmabakki | māˀaḫtēsi |
king-nom.masc.sg | people\cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl | nfut-put_together-3ms.rel |
a king who united his people |
Relative clauses can also be made by the use of the interrogative pronoun arr- "(the one) who", agreeing in number and gender with the main clause's referent.
assalmabas | arras | ḳebbis | māˀaḫti |
king-nom.masc.sg | who-nom/acc.inan.sg | people\cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl | nfut-put_together-3ms |
the people who the king united |
ummuḫdas | arras | ku | rabdāmūs | taḳūstan |
palace-nom/acc.inan.sg | who-nom/acc.inan.sg | at | guards-nom.fem.pl | futi-lie_down-3fp |
the palace where guards might reside |
Sentence syntax
The basic word order of Vrkhazhian is SOV. Vrkhazhian has two primary voices, active and applicative:
aldāmīs | ilgūn | amtan |
warrior-nom.masc.pl | fish-acc.fem.pl | nfut-eat\act-3mp |
The warriors ate some fish |
aldāmīs | ḫagrākan | ilgūn | āˀamtan |
warrior-nom.masc.pl | dog-acc.fem.pl-3mp | fish-acc.fem.pl | nfut-eat\appl-3mp |
The warriors fed their dogs some fish |
The verb root ñ-m (to eat), in the first example, is conjugated for active nonfuture masculine plural in the active sentence agreeing in number and gender with the subject "warriors", while the same verb root in the second example is conjugated in the passive nonfuture feminine plural, agreeing in number and gender with the subject "fish".
Writing System
Vocabulary
Example text