User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

From FrathWiki
Jump to navigationJump to search
 
(12 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
= Introduction =
= introduction =


'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
= phonology =


'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any other [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
== consonants ==
* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.


= Phonology =
{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
 
|+Consonants
'''Kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.
 
== Consonants ==
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
!
!
! Labial
!Labial
! Coronal
!colspan=2|Alveolar
! Dorsal
!Palatal
|-align=center
!Velar
!Glottal
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
| m
| m ('''m''')
| n
|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
|  
| ɲ ('''ny''')
|-align=center
|
|
|-
! Plosive
! Plosive
| p
| p~b ('''p''')
| t
|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
| k
|
|-align=center
| k~g ('''k''')
! Fricative
| ʔ (''' ' ''')
|-
! Affricate
|
| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
|
|
|
|-
! Continuant
|
| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
|
|
|
| s
| h~ɦ ('''h''')
|-
! Semivowel
|
|
|-align=center
|colspan=2|
! Approximant
| w
| l
| j ('''y''')
| j ('''y''')
| w ('''u''')
|
|}
|}


== Vowels ==
The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!Front!!Back
|- align="center"
!Close
|i||u
|- align="center"
!Mid
|e||o
|- align="center"
!Open
| colspan="2" |a
|}
 
=== Diphthongs ===
 
There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.


== Syllable Structure ==
* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.
* '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/


=== Syllables ===
=== free variation ===
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.


The ordering of the syllables is based on Japanese [[wp:Gojūon|'''Gojūon''']].
=== Sound Changes ===
The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
== vowels ==
|-align=center
{| class="wikitable"  
| '''a'''
|+Vowels
| '''ka'''
| '''sa'''
| '''ta'''
| '''na'''
| '''pa'''
| '''ma'''
| '''ya'''
| '''la'''
| '''wa'''
|-align=center
| '''i'''
| '''ki'''
| '''si'''
| '''ti'''
| '''ni'''
| '''pi'''
| '''mi'''
| ''' '''
| '''li'''
| '''wi'''
|-align=center
| '''u'''
| '''ku'''
| '''su'''
| '''tu'''
| '''nu'''
| '''pu'''
| '''mu'''
| '''yu'''
| '''lu'''
| ''' '''
|-align=center
| '''e'''
| '''ke'''
| '''se'''
| '''te'''
| '''ne'''
| '''pe'''
| '''me'''
| '''ye'''
| '''le'''
| '''we'''
|-align=center
| '''o'''
| '''ko'''
| '''so'''
| '''to'''
| '''no'''
| '''po'''
| '''mo'''
| '''yo'''
| '''lo'''
| ''' '''
|}
 
a
an
e
en
i
in
ka
kan
ke
ken
ki
kin
ko
kon
ku
kun
la
lan
le
len
li
lin
lo
lon
lu
lun
ma
man
me
men
mi
min
mo
mon
mu
mun
na
nan
ne
nen
ni
nin
no
non
nu
nun
o
on
pa
pan
pe
pen
pi
pin
po
pon
pu
pun
sa
san
se
sen
si
sin
so
son
su
sun
ta
tan
te
ten
ti
tin
to
ton
tu
tun
u
un
wa
wan
we
wen
wi
win
ya
yan
ye
yen
yo
yon
yu
yun
 
== phonotactics ==
A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.
 
== Allophony ==
 
The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
 
= Writing =
 
'''Kalo''' can be written with numerous writing systems, and is adaptable to various alphabets, abugidas, and even logographies, but for aesthetical reasons, a simplified adaptation of Hangul is used.
 
[[File:Kaloji.png]]
 
= Syntax =
 
: [[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial.
: [[wp:Chinese_grammar|Chinese]] is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb.
: [[wp:Spanish_grammar|Spanish]] unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable.
: [[wp:English_grammar|English]] word order is almost exclusively SVO.
: [[wp:Hindustani_grammar|Hindi]] is primarily an SOV language.
 
Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
 
* '''wa toma''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
* '''o koma amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
 
== questions ==
 
The interrogative particle '''ma''' (taken from Chinese ([[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.
 
=== non-polar questions ===
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''ma''' - what; which
* '''ma ko''' - who, whom
* '''ma koyo''' - whose, of whom
* '''ma tenpo''' - when
{{col-break}}
* '''ma loka''' - where
* '''ma moto''' - how
* '''ma laka''' - how much, how many
* '''ma sapa''' - why
{{col-end}}
 
=== polar questions ===
 
Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ma''' at the end of the sentence.
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''wa wite le kasa'''
: <small>1S see PST house</small>
: ''I saw the house.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ni wite le kasa ma'''
: <small>2S see PST house Q</small>
: ''Did you see the house?''
{{col-end}}
 
= Nouns =
 
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
 
== Pronouns ==
 
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
!
!
! singular
!'''Front'''
! plural
!'''Back'''
! possessive
|-align=center
|-align=center
! 1st person
!'''Close'''
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
|-align=center
|-align=center
! 2nd person
!'''Mid'''
| '''ni'''<br>you
|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
|-align=center
|-align=center
! 3rd person
!'''Open'''  
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
|}
|}


* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').


* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
=== diphthongs ===
 
Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
== Gender ==
 
TBD


== phonotactics ==
The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.


爸 / 媽
There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).


When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.


= Verbs =
=== gemination ===
Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.


Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles. There are three basic tenses in Kalo, past, present, and future. The simple present is not marked, the past is marked by '''le''' from the Chinese particle ([[wiktionary:了|了]]), and the future is marked by '''sa''' from the Arabic construction ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).
=== syllables ===
Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').  


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
=== syllable chart ===
|-−
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
|-
|-
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
!
! a
! e
! i
! o
! u
! ua
! ue
! ya
! ye
! yo
! ai
! ao
! uai
! yao
|-
|-
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
! p
| align="center"|''(m)pa''
| align="center"|''(m)pe''
| align="center"|''(m)pi''
| align="center"|''(m)po''
| align="center"|''(m)pu''
| align="center"|''pua''
| align="center"|''pue''
| align="center"|''pya''
| align="center"|''pye''
| align="center"|''pyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
|-
|-
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
! t
| align="center"|''(n)ta''
| align="center"|''(n)te''
| align="center"|''(n)ti''
| align="center"|''(n)to''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
! k
|}
| align="center"|''(n)ka''
 
| align="center"|''(n)ke''
* '''wa kome le''' - <small>1s eat PST</small> - ''I ate.''
| align="center"|''(n)ki''
* '''aki koyo kome''' - <small>brother 3sg.GEN eat</small> - ''His brother eats/is eating.''
| align="center"|''(n)ko''
* '''nilo ne wite sa ko''' - <small>2pl NEG see FUT 3sg</small> - ''You all will not see her.''
| align="center"|''(n)ku''
 
| align="center"|''kua''
 
| align="center"|''kue''
 
| align="center"|''kya''
 
| align="center"|''kye''
== positional verbs ==
| align="center"|''kyo''
 
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
 
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
 
== Conditionals ==
 
Uncertainty is marked by '''ki, kisa''', or '''kile'''. These are taken from Spanish ([[wiktionary:quizá|quizá]]) and used across the three basic tenses. It can also act as a subordinating conjunction, and conditional constructions, “''if, whether''”. It is also used to express possibility or probability.
 
* '''tela wa ki ni wite ko''' - <small>tell 1s if 2s see 3s</small> - Tell me if you can see her.
* '''ki ni amo yawe te pu yuma ne inpo''' - <small>if 2sg like weather of today NEG important</small> - Whether you like today’s weather does not matter. 
* '''kisa pu yuma yuwa''' - <small>maybe this day rain</small> - It may rain (later) today.
== Prepositions ==
 
* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar#Prepositions
 
= Number =
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
|+
|-
|-
! Kalo
! m
! number
| align="center"|''ma''
! English
| align="center"|''me''
! Kalo
| align="center"|''mi''
! number
| align="center"|''mo''
! English
| align="center"|''mu''
| align="center"|''mua''
| align="center"|''mue''
| align="center"|''mya''
| align="center"|''mye''
| align="center"|''myo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
|-
|-
| '''sunya''' || 0 || zero || '''na''' || 7 || seven
! n
| align="center"|''na''
| align="center"|''ne''
| align="center"|''ni''
| align="center"|''no''
| align="center"|''nu''
| align="center"|''nua''
| align="center"|''nue''
| align="center"|''nya''
| align="center"|''nye''
| align="center"|''nyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
|-
|-
| '''wa''' || 1 || one || '''pa''' || 8 || eight
! s
| align="center"|''sa''
| align="center"|''se''
| align="center"|''si''
| align="center"|''so''
| align="center"|''su''
| align="center"|''sua''
| align="center"|''sue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
| '''li''' || 2 || two || '''nun''' || 9 || nine
! h
| align="center"|''ha''
| align="center"|''he''
| align="center"|''hi''
| align="center"|''ho''
| align="center"|''hu''
| align="center"|''hua''
| align="center"|''hue''
| align="center"|''hya''
| align="center"|''hye''
| align="center"|''hyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
|-
|-
| '''san''' || 3 || three || '''ye''' || 10 || ten
! ts
| align="center"|''tsa''
| align="center"|''tse''
| align="center"|''tsi''
| align="center"|''tso''
| align="center"|''tsu''
| align="center"|''tsua''
| align="center"|''tsue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
| '''si''' || 4 || four || '''aku''' / '''-ku''' || 100 || (one) hundred
! tl
| align="center"|''tla''
| align="center"|''tle''
| align="center"|''tli''
| align="center"|''tlo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
| '''pen''' || 5 || five || '''mila''' || 1000 || (one) thousand
! l
| align="center"|''la''
| align="center"|''le''
| align="center"|''li''
| align="center"|''lo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
| '''we''' || 6 || six  || '' '' || '' '' || '' ''  
! -
| align="center"|''a''
| align="center"|''e''
| align="center"|''i''
| align="center"|''o''
| align="center"|''u''
| align="center"|''ua''
| align="center"|''ue''
| align="center"|''ya''
| align="center"|''ye''
| align="center"|''yo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
|}
|}


When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>


* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
=== collating order ===
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
: ''She had two houses.''


* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
! Consonants
: ''I see four men.''
| '''p'''
| '''t'''
| '''k'''
| '''m'''
| '''n'''
| '''s'''
| '''h'''
| '''ts'''
| '''tl'''
| '''l'''
|-align=center
! Vowels
| '''a'''
| '''e'''
| '''i'''
| '''o'''
| '''u'''
| '''ua'''
| '''ue'''
| '''ya'''
| '''ye'''
| '''yo'''
|-align=center
|}


== Higher Numbers ==
Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.


* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
== stress ==
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five


= Lexicon =
* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/


Words in '''Kalo''' tend to function in multiple roles. The lexicon is arranged to include those roles within each entry. What follows is the working lexicon for [[Kalo]].
= orthography =


{{col-begin}}
= morphology =
{{col-break}}
* '''ARA''' - Arabic
* ELL - Greek
* '''ENG''' - English
* FRE - French
* GER - German
* HEB - Hebrew
* '''HIN''' - Hindi
{{col-break}}
* JPN - Japanese
* KOR - Korean
* PIE - Proto-Indo-European
* '''SPA''' - Spanish
* TUR - Turkish
* '''ZHO''' - Mandarin
{{col-break}}
* ''adj'' - adjective
* ''n'' - noun
* ''num'' - number/numeral
* ''part'' - particle
* ''prep'' - preposition
* ''pro'' - pronoun
* ''v'' - verb
{{col-end}}


== nouns ==


== a ==
=== pronouns ===


* '''aku''' [-'''ku'''] (JPN [[wiktionary:ひゃく|ひゃく]]) - ''num'' - hundred; 100 | ''n'' - many; much; a lot
=== determiners and demonstratives ===
* '''amo''' (SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]) - ''v'' - like; love; adore | ''n'' - affection; adoration; love
* '''ante''' (SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]) - ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead; previous; last
* '''asi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]) - ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore
* '''ate''' (ARA [[wiktionary:عادي|عادي]]) - ''v'' - be normal; usual; customary; habitual | ''n'' habit; custom
* '''awa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:أو#Arabic|أو]]) - ''part'' - either; or; other
* '''aye''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:異|異]]) - ''v/n'' - different; other; hetero-; unusual; strange; to distinguish; to separate; to discriminate
* '''ayo''' (ARA [[wiktionary:أي#Arabic|أي]]) - ''pro'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]; any(thing)


== e ==
== verbs ==


* '''e''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Conjunction_24|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Pronunciation_2|和]]) - ''part'' - and; also; too; even (still)
=== passive ===


== i ==
=== causative ===


* '''ila''' (SPA [[wiktionary:إلى#Etymology_1|إلى]]) - ''prep'' - to; toward; until; near | ''v'' - to move toward; go
=== inceptive ===


== k ==
=== infinitive ===


* '''kai''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:該|該]]) - ''v'' - should; ought to; need to; have to
=== copula ===
* '''kasa''' (SPA [[wiktionary:casa|casa]]) - ''n'' - house; building | ''v'' - live in; dwell
* '''kan''' or '''kana''' (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:كان#Arabic|كان]]/[[wiktionary:כן#Hebrew|כן]]) - ''v'' - be; exist; live; occur | ''n'' - existence | ''part'' - yes; thus
* '''kate''' (ARA [[wiktionary:خط|خط]]) - ''n'' - writing; letters | ''v'' - mark; draw; carve
* '''ke''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:个|个]]) - ''part'' - number marker
* '''kipu''' (ARA [[wiktionary:وقف|وقف]]) - ''n'' - pause; cessation | ''v'' - stop; halt; cease; pause; discontinue
* '''kisa''' (SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]) - ''part'' - perhaps; maybe [also '''ki''' - if; '''kile''' - maybe 'it was']
* '''ko''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:個|個]]) - ''n'' - person; individual; adult | ''pro'' - he; she [3sg]
* '''kono''' (SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]) - ''v'' - know; be aware of; understand; recognize | ''n'' - knowledge; awareness
* '''koyo''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:個|個]][[wiktionary:有|有]]) - ''part'' - whose; of who
* '''kula''' (ARA [[wiktionary:كل|كل]]) - ''v'' - be complete; whole | ''n'' - all; entire; every; each
* '''kun''' (SPA [[wiktionary:con#Spanish|con]]/[[wiktionary:跟#Definitions|跟]]) - ''prep'' - with; by; via | ''v'' - use; employ
* '''kute''' (FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]]) - ''v'' - listen; hear


== l ==
=== stative verbs ===


* '''laka''' (ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]]) - ''v'' - count; number; enumerate | ''n'' - numeral; digit; number; amount; sum
= derivational morphology =
* '''lana''' (HIN [[wiktionary:रहना|रहना]]) - ''v'' - remain; stay (still); stand; continue
* '''lapa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:لعب|لعب]]) - ''v'' - play; amuse; enjoy | ''n'' - toy; play; amusement
* '''lata''' (SPA [[wiktionary:lata|lata]]) - ''v'' - carry; transport | ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
* '''le''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]]) - ''part'' - past tense marker [PST]
* '''li''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:两|两]]) - ''num'' - two; double; duo
* '''lo''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:摞|摞]]) - ''part'' - plural marker [PL]
* '''loka''' (SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]) - ''n'' - place; location; point; spot
* '''luna''' (SPA [[wiktionary:luna#Spanish|luna]]) - ''n'' - moon; satellite; orbiting body; month
* '''luwi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:lluvia|lluvia]]) - ''v/n'' - rain; precipitation


== m ==
== nominalizers ==


* '''ma''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Definitions|嗎]]) - ''part'' - what; which; question marker [Q]
== reduplication ==
* '''maka''' (ENG [[wiktionary:make#English|make]]) - ''v'' - make; do; cause; happen | ''n'' - action; reason; event
* '''mala''' (ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]]) - ''n'' - woman; female; wife
* '''maso''' (SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]) - ''v'' - again; add; repeat; layer | ''n'' - more; addition; layer
* '''me''' (FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]) - ''part'' - but; however; although
* '''meno''' (FRE [[wiktionary:menos#Spanish|menos]]) - ''v'' - less; subtract; minus | ''n'' less; fewer; subtraction
* '''mente''' (SPA [[wiktionary:mente#Spanish|mente]]) - ''v'' - think; ponder; consider | ''n'' - thought; consideration; mind; mental state
* '''mila''' (SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]]) - ''num'' - thousand; 1000
* '''moto''' (SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]) - ''n'' - manner; method; how; way; mood
* '''muki''' (ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]]) - ''v/n'' - be important; matter / issue


== n ==
== verbalizers ==


* '''na''' (JPN [[wiktionary:なな|なな]]) - ''num'' - seven; 7
= syntax =
* '''nai''' (JPN [[wiktionary:内#Japanese|内]]) - ''prep'' - inside; within; during; central; middle; center [locative and temporal]
* '''nalu''' (JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]]) - ''v/n'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
* '''nama''' (ARA [[wiktionary:نام|نام]]) - ''v/n'' - sleep; rest; relax
* '''nan(o)''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:男|男]]) - ''n'' - man; male
* '''naya''' (HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]]) - ''v'' - be new; fresh; young
* '''ne''' (ENG [[wiktionary:nay#English|nay]]) - ''part'' - no; not; none; negative [NEG]
* '''nesi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]) - ''v'' - need; require | ''n'' - necessity; a must
* '''ni''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:你|你]]) - ''pro'' - you [2sg]
* '''note''' (SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]]) - ''n'' - night; darkness
* '''nun''' (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]]) - ''num'' - nine; 9


== o ==
== word order ==


* '''o''' (JPN [[wiktionary:を|を]]) - ''part'' - direct object marker [DO]
== case usage ==
* '''ola''' (SPA [[wiktionary:hola#Spanish|hola]]) - ''part'' - hello; goodbye | ''v'' - greet
* '''oma''' (GER [[wiktionary:Oma#German|Oma]]) - ''n'' - mother; female parent; any adult female family member
* '''opa''' (GER [[wiktionary:Opa#German|Opa]]) - ''n'' - father; male parent; any adult male family member


== p ==
== noun phrases ==


* '''pa''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]]) - ''num'' - eight
== numbers ==
* '''pala''' (SPA [[wiktionary:palabra|palabra]]) - ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme; lemma
* '''pan''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]]) - ''n'' - food; bread; grains; rice; sustenance
* '''pen''' (ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε|πέντε]]) - ''num'' - five
* '''pesi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:pez#Etymology_2_3|pez]]) - ''n'' - fish; aquatic animal(s) | ''v'' - swim; wade; move through water
* '''pin(a)''' (ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]]) - ''n'' - child; offspring; kid
* '''po''' (SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]/[[wiktionary:para#Spanish|para]]) - ''prep'' - for; by; through; because | ''v'' - be about; move across
* '''poka''' (SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]) - ''v'' - (be) small; tiny; few; some; little
* '''pone''' (SPA [[wiktionary:poner#Spanish|poner]]) - ''v'' - put; place; set; establish
* '''pote''' (SPA [[wiktionary:poder#Spanish|poder]]) - ''v'' - be able to; can | ''n'' - ability; capability
* '''pu''' (TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]) - ''part'' - this; these [proximal or medial]
* '''pula''' (HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]) - ''v'' - (be) bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil
* '''pusu''' (TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]+[[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]) - ''part'' - both; "this and that"


== s ==
== comparisons ==


* '''sa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:سَـ|سَـ]]) - ''part'' - future tense marker [FUT]
== prepositions ==
* '''saka/na''' (ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]]) - ''v/n'' - hot; heat; warm(th); fire
* '''salama''' (ARA [[wiktionary:سلم|سلم]]) - ''v/n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet / be peaceful; be calm
* '''san''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:三|三]]) - ''num'' - three; triple
* '''sana''' (ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]]) - ''n'' - year; 365 days
* '''sapa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]]) - ''n'' - reason; motive; cause
* '''sawa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]]) - ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
* '''sayo''' (ARA [[wiktionary:شي‎|شي‎]]) - ''n'' - thing; object; matter; noun
* '''se''' (KOR [[wiktionary:서로|서로]]) - ''part'' - each [other]; mutually; reciprocal
* '''si''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:四|四]]) - ''num'' - four
* '''sima''' or '''isima''' (ARA [[wiktionary:اسم|اسم]]) - ''v/n'' - noun; name; be called
* '''simi''' (ENG/SPA [[wiktionary:similar|similar]]) - ''v'' - resemble; similar; like
* '''siya''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:下|下]]) - ''v/prep'' - under; below; down
* '''solo''' (SPA [[wiktionary:solo#Spanish|solo]]) - ''v'' - alone; solitary; only; unique
* '''sosa''' (ENG [[wiktionary:sauce|sauce]]) - ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing
* '''su''' (TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]) - ''part'' - that; those [medial or distal]
* '''suku''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:足夠|足夠]]) - ''v'' - be enough; adequate; sufficient; ample
* '''sula''' (HIN [[wiktionary:सुलभ|सुलभ]]) - ''v/n'' - light; easy; convenient; gentle; soft
* '''sunya''' (HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]]) - ''v/num'' - zero; empty; nothing


== t ==
== tense usage ==


* '''ta''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:大#Definitions|大]]) - ''v'' - (be) big; large; heavy; long; tall | ''part'' very (much/many); extremely
== moods ==
* '''tali''' (ARA [[wiktionary:تال|تال]]) - ''v/n'' - order; sequence; be next; subsequent
* '''tanka''' (ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke|danke]]) - ''v/part'' - thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
* '''tapo''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]]) - ''v/n'' - destruction; damage; wreck; break; destroy
* '''te''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Spanish|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Etymology_2|的]]) - ''prep'' - of; from
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/talō|del]]) - ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell | ''n'' - language; discussion; conversation
* '''tenpo''' (SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]) - ''n'' - time; hour; period; age
* '''tipa''' or '''tupa''' (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:طيب#Etymology_1|طيب]]/[[wiktionary:טוב#Etymology_1|טוב]]) - ''v'' - (be) good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
* '''tiya''' (SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]]) - ''n'' - aunt/uncle
* '''toma''' (SPA [[wiktionary:tomar#Spanish|tomar]]) - ''v'' - eat; drink; ingest | ''n'' - eating; drinking
* '''tonpa''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞|同胞]]) - ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend
* '''tonye''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:同一|同一]]) - ''part'' - same; replicate; duplicate
* '''tonye''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:讀書|讀書]]) - ''v/n'' - discern; find out; learn


== u ==
== aspect ==


== w ==
== conditionals ==


* '''wa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:واحد#Arabic|واحد]]) - ''num'' - one; single; singular; alone
== subordinate clauses ==
* '''wa''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:我|我]]) - ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
* '''wan''' (ENG [[wiktionary:want#English|want]]) - ''v'' - want; desire; wish (for) | ''n'' - desire; want
* '''waya''' (HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]) - ''v'' - grow; mature; develop | ''n'' - adult; mature thing
* '''we''' (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]) - ''num'' - six; 6
* '''weko''' (SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]) - ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port
* '''wela''' (SPA [[wiktionary:fuera|fuera]]) - ''v/prep'' - (be/go) outside; exterior; surface
* '''wenta''' (SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]]) - ''v/n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
* '''wika''' (HIN [[wiktionary:विकट#Hindi|विकट]]) - ''v/n'' - difficult; hard; arduous; uncomfortable; problem
* '''wino''' (SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]]) - ''v/n'' - (drink) alcohol; beer; wine
* '''wite''' (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/weyd-|weyd]]) - ''v'' - look; see; observe; watch; read


== y ==
== negatives ==


* '''ya''' (ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]) - ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
== questions ==
* '''yame''' (ARA [[wiktionary:جمع#Arabic|جمع]]) - ''v'' - gather; group; collect | ''n'' - gathering; group; collection; set
* '''yati''' (ARA [[wiktionary:يد#Arabic|يد]]) - ''n'' - arm, hand, tactile organ
* '''ye''' (KOR [[wiktionary:열|열]]) - ''num'' - 10; ten
* '''yeko''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以後]]) - ''prep'' - after; afterward(s); later | ''n'' - back; behind; rear
* '''yo''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Chinese|有]]) - ''v'' - have; possess; hold
* '''yu''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Etymology|於]]) - ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of [strictly locative]
* '''yuma''' (ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]) - ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period
 
== zzz ==
 
121 early
122 late
123 important
124 interesting
125 fun
126 boring
127 beautiful
128 big
129 small
130 happy
131 sad
132 busy
133 excited
134 tired
135 ready
136 favorite
137 new
138 right (meaning “correct”)
139 wrong
140 true
141 Pronouns
142
143 I / me / my
144
145 I
146 you
147 she
148 he
149 it
150 we
151 you (plural)
152 they
153 Nouns
154
155
156
157 everything
158 something
159 nothing
160 everyone
161 someone
162 no one
163 (name of the language you’re studying)
164 English
165 thing
166 person
167 place
168 time (as in “a long time”)
169 time (as in “I did it 3 times”)
170 friend
171 woman
172 man
173 money
174 country
175 (name of your home country)
176 city
177 language
178 word
179 food
180 house
181 store
182 office
183 company
184 manager
185 coworker
186 job
187 work (as in “I have a lot of work to do”)
188 problem
189 question
190 idea
191 life
192 world
193 day
194 year
195 week
196 month
197 hour
198 mother, father, parent
199 daughter, son, child
200 wife, husband
201 girlfriend, boyfriend
202 More Verbs
203
204 work (as in a person working)
205 work (meaning “to function”, e.g. “the TV works”)
206 see
207 use
208 should
209 believe
210 practice
211 seem
212 come
213 leave
214 return
215 give
216 take
217 bring
218 look for
219 find
220 get (meaning “obtain”)
221 receive
222 buy
223 try
224 start
225 stop (doing something)
226 finish
227 continue
228 wake up
229 get up
230 eat
231 eat breakfast (in several languages, this is a verb)
232 eat lunch
233 eat dinner
234 happen
235 feel
236 create (aka “make”)
237 cause (aka “make”)
238 meet (meeting someone for the first time)
239 meet (meaning “to bump into”)
240 meet (an arranged meeting)
241 ask (a question)
242 ask for (aka “request”)
243 wonder
244 reply
245 mean
246 read
247 write
248 listen
249 hear
250 remember
251 forget
252 choose
253 decide
254 be born
255 die
256 kill
257 live
258 stay
259 change
260 help
261 send
262 study
263 improve
264 hope
265 care
266 Phrases
267
268 hello
269 goodbye
270 thank you
271 you’re welcome
272 excuse me (to get someone’s attention)
273 sorry
274 it’s fine (response to an apology)
275 please
276 yes
277 no
278 okay
279 My name is
280 What’s your name?
281 Nice to meet you.
282 How are you?
283 I’m doing well, how about you?
284 Sorry? / What? (if you didn’t hear something)
285 How do you say ______?
286 What does ______ mean?
287 I don’t understand.
288 Could you repeat that?
289 Could you speak more slowly, please?
290 Well (as in “well, I think…”)
291 Really?
292 I guess that
293 It’s hot. (talking about the weather)
294 It’s cold. (talking about the weather)

Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m (m) n (n) ɲ (ny)
Plosive p~b (p) t~d (t) k~g (k) ʔ ( ' )
Affricate ts~t͡ʃ (ts) t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant s~ʃ (s) l~ɾ (l) h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel j (y) w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

  • Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
  • Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
  • Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
Front Back
Close i~ɪ (i) u~ʊ (u)
Mid e~ɛ (e) o~o: (o)
Open a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
a e i o u ua ue ya ye yo ai ao uai yao
p (m)pa (m)pe (m)pi (m)po (m)pu pua pue pya pye pyo pai pao puai pyao
t (n)ta (n)te (n)ti (n)to tai tao
k (n)ka (n)ke (n)ki (n)ko (n)ku kua kue kya kye kyo kai kao kuai kyao
m ma me mi mo mu mua mue mya mye myo mai mao muai myao
n na ne ni no nu nua nue nya nye nyo nai nao nuai nyao
s sa se si so su sua sue sai sao suai
h ha he hi ho hu hua hue hya hye hyo hai hao huai hyao
ts tsa tse tsi tso tsu tsua tsue tsai tsao tsuai
tl tla tle tli tlo tlai tlao
l la le li lo lai lao
- a e i o u ua ue ya ye yo ai ao uai yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants p t k m n s h ts tl l
Vowels a e i o u ua ue ya ye yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

  • masa - /ˈmaːsa/ → masako - /maːˈsako/
  • tliyama - /tɬiːˈjama/ → tliyamalo - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
  • kam - /kaːm/ → kamyo - /ˈkaːmʲo/
  • empahapak - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → empahapayek - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/

orthography

morphology

nouns

pronouns

determiners and demonstratives

verbs

passive

causative

inceptive

infinitive

copula

stative verbs

derivational morphology

nominalizers

reduplication

verbalizers

syntax

word order

case usage

noun phrases

numbers

comparisons

prepositions

tense usage

moods

aspect

conditionals

subordinate clauses

negatives

questions

Retrieved from "http://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Masako/pataka&oldid=145963"