Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

Consonants
	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m (m)	n (n)		ɲ (ny)
Plosive	p~b (p)	t~d (t)			k~g (k)	ʔ ( ' )
Affricate		ts~t͡ʃ (ts)	t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant		s~ʃ (s)	l~ɾ (l)			h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel				j (y)	w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
	Front	Back
Close	i~ɪ (i)	u~ʊ (u)
Mid	e~ɛ (e)	o~o: (o)
Open	a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao
p	(m)pa	(m)pe	(m)pi	(m)po	(m)pu	pua	pue	pya	pye	pyo	pai	pao	puai	pyao
t	(n)ta	(n)te	(n)ti	(n)to							tai	tao
k	(n)ka	(n)ke	(n)ki	(n)ko	(n)ku	kua	kue	kya	kye	kyo	kai	kao	kuai	kyao
m	ma	me	mi	mo	mu	mua	mue	mya	mye	myo	mai	mao	muai	myao
n	na	ne	ni	no	nu	nua	nue	nya	nye	nyo	nai	nao	nuai	nyao
s	sa	se	si	so	su	sua	sue				sai	sao	suai
h	ha	he	hi	ho	hu	hua	hue	hya	hye	hyo	hai	hao	huai	hyao
ts	tsa	tse	tsi	tso	tsu	tsua	tsue				tsai	tsao	tsuai
tl	tla	tle	tli	tlo							tlai	tlao
l	la	le	li	lo							lai	lao
-	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants	p	t	k	m	n	s	h	ts	tl	l
Vowels	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= intro =
+= introduction =
-'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
-'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
 = phonology =
-'''kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is word final.
 == consonants ==
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
+* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
+{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
+|+Consonants
 !
-! Labial
+!Labial
-! Coronal
+!colspan=2|Alveolar
-! Dorsal
+!Palatal
-|-align=center
+!Velar
+!Glottal
+|-
 ! Nasal
-| m
+| m ('''m''')
-| n
+|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
-|
+| ɲ ('''ny''')
-|-align=center
-! Plosive
-| p
-| t
-| k
-|-align=center
-! Fricative
 |
-| s
 |
-|-align=center
-! Approximant
-| w
-| l
-| j ('''y''')
-|}
-== vowels ==
-{| class="wikitable"
 |-
-!''Vowels''!!Front!!Back
+! Plosive
-|- align="center"
+| p~b ('''p''')
-!Close
+|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
-|i||u
+|
-|- align="center"
+| k~g ('''k''')
-!Mid
+| ʔ (''' ' ''')
-|e||o
-|- align="center"
-!Open
-| colspan="2" |a
-|}
-=== diphthongs ===
-There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.
-== syllable structure ==
-All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.
-== phonotactics ==
-A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.
-== syllables ==
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
-|-−
-! a || ka || sa || ta || na || pa || ma || ya || la || wa
 |-
-! i || ki || si || ti || ni || pi || mi ||  || li || wi
+! Affricate
+|
+| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
+|
+|
+|
 |-
-! u || ku || su || tu || nu || pu || mu || yu || lu ||
+! Continuant
+|
+| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
+|
+|
+| h~ɦ ('''h''')
 |-
-! e || ke || se || te || ne || pe || me || ye || le || we
+! Semivowel
-|-
+|
-! o || ko || so || to || no || po || mo || yo || lo ||
+|colspan=2|
+| j ('''y''')
+| w ('''u''')
+|
 |}
-=== writing ===
+The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
-[[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]
+* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
+* '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
+* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
-If desired, an adaptation of Hangul may be used to write '''Kalo'''.
+=== free variation ===
+Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
-* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅇ</b></big></big></font>
+=== Sound Changes ===
-: '''k n t l m p s -'''
+The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
-* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅘ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font>
+== vowels ==
-: '''a ya e ye o wa yo u we wi yu - i'''
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+Vowels
+!
+!'''Front'''
+!'''Back'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Close'''
+|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Mid'''
+|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Open'''
+|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
+|}
-==== Examples ====
+'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
-* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>와로 너 고머 사 </b></big></big></font>
+=== diphthongs ===
-: '''walo ne kome sa'''
+Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
-: <small>1pl NEG eat FUT </small>
-: ''We will not eat.''
-[[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]
+== phonotactics ==
+The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
-== allophony ==
+There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
-The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
-= Syntax =
+When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
-[[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial. [[wp:Chinese_grammar|Chinese]] is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb. [[wp:Spanish_grammar|Spanish]] unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable. [[wp:English_grammar|English]] word order is almost exclusively SVO. [[wp:Hindustani_grammar|Hindi]] is primarily an SOV language.
+=== gemination ===
+Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
-Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
+=== syllables ===
+Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
-* '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
+=== syllable chart ===
-:
+{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
-* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
+|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
-:
+|-
-* '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
+!
+! a
+! e
+! i
+! o
+! u
+! ua
+! ue
+! ya
+! ye
+! yo
+! ai
+! ao
+! uai
+! yao
+|-
+! p
+| align="center"|''(m)pa''
+| align="center"|''(m)pe''
+| align="center"|''(m)pi''
+| align="center"|''(m)po''
+| align="center"|''(m)pu''
+| align="center"|''pua''
+| align="center"|''pue''
+| align="center"|''pya''
+| align="center"|''pye''
+| align="center"|''pyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
+|-
+! t
+| align="center"|''(n)ta''
+| align="center"|''(n)te''
+| align="center"|''(n)ti''
+| align="center"|''(n)to''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! k
+| align="center"|''(n)ka''
+| align="center"|''(n)ke''
+| align="center"|''(n)ki''
+| align="center"|''(n)ko''
+| align="center"|''(n)ku''
+| align="center"|''kua''
+| align="center"|''kue''
+| align="center"|''kya''
+| align="center"|''kye''
+| align="center"|''kyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
+|-
+! m
+| align="center"|''ma''
+| align="center"|''me''
+| align="center"|''mi''
+| align="center"|''mo''
+| align="center"|''mu''
+| align="center"|''mua''
+| align="center"|''mue''
+| align="center"|''mya''
+| align="center"|''mye''
+| align="center"|''myo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
+|-
+! n
+| align="center"|''na''
+| align="center"|''ne''
+| align="center"|''ni''
+| align="center"|''no''
+| align="center"|''nu''
+| align="center"|''nua''
+| align="center"|''nue''
+| align="center"|''nya''
+| align="center"|''nye''
+| align="center"|''nyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
+|-
+! s
+| align="center"|''sa''
+| align="center"|''se''
+| align="center"|''si''
+| align="center"|''so''
+| align="center"|''su''
+| align="center"|''sua''
+| align="center"|''sue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! h
+| align="center"|''ha''
+| align="center"|''he''
+| align="center"|''hi''
+| align="center"|''ho''
+| align="center"|''hu''
+| align="center"|''hua''
+| align="center"|''hue''
+| align="center"|''hya''
+| align="center"|''hye''
+| align="center"|''hyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
+|-
+! ts
+| align="center"|''tsa''
+| align="center"|''tse''
+| align="center"|''tsi''
+| align="center"|''tso''
+| align="center"|''tsu''
+| align="center"|''tsua''
+| align="center"|''tsue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! tl
+| align="center"|''tla''
+| align="center"|''tle''
+| align="center"|''tli''
+| align="center"|''tlo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! l
+| align="center"|''la''
+| align="center"|''le''
+| align="center"|''li''
+| align="center"|''lo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! -
+| align="center"|''a''
+| align="center"|''e''
+| align="center"|''i''
+| align="center"|''o''
+| align="center"|''u''
+| align="center"|''ua''
+| align="center"|''ue''
+| align="center"|''ya''
+| align="center"|''ye''
+| align="center"|''yo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
+|}
-== questions ==
+<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>
-The interrogative particle '''ma''' (taken from Chinese ([[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.
+=== collating order ===
+The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
-=== non-polar questions ===
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
+! Consonants
+| '''p'''
+| '''t'''
+| '''k'''
+| '''m'''
+| '''n'''
+| '''s'''
+| '''h'''
+| '''ts'''
+| '''tl'''
+| '''l'''
+|-align=center
+! Vowels
+| '''a'''
+| '''e'''
+| '''i'''
+| '''o'''
+| '''u'''
+| '''ua'''
+| '''ue'''
+| '''ya'''
+| '''ye'''
+| '''yo'''
+|-align=center
+|}
-{{col-begin}}
+Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
-{{col-break}}
-* '''ma''' - what; which
-* '''ma ko''' - who, whom
-* '''ma koyo''' - whose, of whom
-* '''ma tenpo''' - when
-{{col-break}}
-* '''ma loka''' - where
-* '''ma moto''' - how
-* '''ma laka''' - how much, how many
-* '''ma sapa''' - why
-{{col-end}}
-=== polar questions ===
+== stress ==
+[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
-Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ma''' at the end of the sentence.
+* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
+* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
+* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
+* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
-{{col-begin}}
+= orthography =
-{{col-break}}
-* '''wa wite le kasa'''
-: <small>1S see PST house</small>
-: ''I saw the house.''
-{{col-break}}
-* '''ni wite le kasa ma'''
-: <small>2S see PST house Q</small>
-: ''Did you see the house?''
-{{col-end}}
-= Nouns =
+= morphology =
-Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
+== nouns ==
-== pronouns ==
+=== pronouns ===
-'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
+=== determiners and demonstratives ===
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
+== verbs ==
-!
-! singular
-! plural
-! possessive
-|-align=center
-! 1st person
-| '''wa'''<br>I; me
-| '''walo'''<br>we; us
-| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
-|-align=center
-! 2nd person
-| '''ni'''<br>you
-| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
-| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
-|-align=center
-! 3rd person
-| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
-| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
-| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
-|}
-* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
+=== passive ===
-* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
+=== causative ===
-= Verbs =
+=== inceptive ===
-Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.
+=== infinitive ===
-* '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
+=== copula ===
-* '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])
-== tense, aspect, and mood ==
+=== stative verbs ===
-Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).
+= derivational morphology =
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
+== nominalizers ==
-|-−
-!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
-|-
-|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
-|-
-|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
-|-
-|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
-|-
-|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
-|}
-* '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''
+== reduplication ==
-* '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''
+== verbalizers ==
-== positional verbs ==
+= syntax =
-'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
+== word order ==
-* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
+== case usage ==
-* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
-= Particles =
+== noun phrases ==
-== determiners ==
+== numbers ==
-Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.
+== comparisons ==
-=== deixis ===
+== prepositions ==
-* '''pu''' - this; these
+== tense usage ==
-* '''su''' - that; those
-=== amount ===
+== moods ==
-* '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
+== aspect ==
-* '''kula''' - all; every; each
-* '''ne''' - no; none; zero
-* '''poka''' - some; several; a few
-::
-* '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
-* '''maso''' - more
-=== other-ness ===
+== conditionals ==
-* '''asi''' - such
+== subordinate clauses ==
-* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
-* '''oto''' - other
-* '''tonye''' - same
-= Number =
+== negatives ==
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
+== questions ==
-|+
-|-
-! Kalo
-! number
-! English
-! Kalo
-! number
-! English
-|-
-| '''sunya''' || 0 || zero || '''na''' || 7 || seven
-|-
-| '''wa''' || 1 || one || '''pa''' || 8 || eight
-|-
-| '''li''' || 2 || two || '''nun''' || 9 || nine
-|-
-| '''san''' || 3 || three || '''ye''' || 10 || ten
-|-
-| '''si''' || 4 || four || '''aku''' / '''-ku''' || 100 || (one) hundred
-|-
-| '''pen''' || 5 || five || '''mila''' || 1000 || (one) thousand
-|-
-| '''we''' || 6 || six  || '' '' || '' '' || '' ''
-|}
-When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
-* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
-: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
-: ''She had two houses.''
-* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
-: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
-: ''I see four men.''
-== Higher Numbers ==
-* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
-* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
-* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
-* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
-* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
-* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five

User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

free variation

Sound Changes

vowels

diphthongs

phonotactics

gemination

syllables

syllable chart

collating order

stress

orthography

morphology

nouns

pronouns

determiners and demonstratives

verbs

passive

causative

inceptive

infinitive

copula

stative verbs

derivational morphology

nominalizers

reduplication

verbalizers

syntax

word order

case usage

noun phrases

numbers

comparisons

prepositions

tense usage

moods

aspect

conditionals

subordinate clauses

negatives

questions

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