Senjecas Syntax Pt. 2

Pronunciation table

peműko (labial)								riisűko (dental)								muitűko (alveolar)								vainűko (palatal)							ṡ̨uuše̋nos (vowels with प)								nı̋þo ṡ̨uuše̋nos (weak vowels)
p	b	f	v	m̃	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			š	s̨			i	e	a	ɔ	o	u			ı	ɛ	y
प	ब	फ	भ	म़	म			त	द	थ	ध	ल़	ल			च	ज	स	स़	र	न			क	ग	क़	ग़	ह	य			स्व	स्य			इ ई पि पी	ए एै पे पै	अ आ प पा	ऒ ॵ पॊ पॏ	ओ औ पो पौ	उ ऊ पु पू			पं	पऺ	पॅ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/sʷ/	/sʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

Glossing abbreviations

1s/p = 1st person singular/plural	ABL = ablative suffix	COL = collective	F = feminine	INT = intensive prefix	PRV = privative prefix	SUP = supine
2s/p = 2nd person singular/plural	ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)	DES = desiderative	FRQ = frequentative	LAT = lative suffix	PST = past	TRZ = transitivizer
3 = 3rd person	ADV = adverb	DIM = diminutive	FUT = future	LOC = locative suffix	REV = reversive	VOC = vocative particle
A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)	AG = agent	ELIS = elision	IMP = imperative	M = masculine	Q = interrogative particle	YNG = young
G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)	AP = agent (active) participle	ELT = elative	INC = inchoative	OCC = occupation suffix	QUOT = direct quotation
N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)	AUG = augmentative	EP = epenthesis	IND = indicative	PP = patient (past) participle	RPR = recent perfective
V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)	CAUS = causative	EQU = equative degree	INS = instrument	PRF = perfect	SBJ = subjunctive

4.8.5 Supine – kaaþfe̋e̋to

• 4.8.5.1 There are neither infinitives nor gerunds in Senjecas, rather a form of the verb in -u is used in their place. This form is called the supine.

I can swim.

mu še̋mu ma̋ƣa:

• 4.8.5.2 A modifying adverb will precede the supine.

I can swim well.

mu súvi še̋mu ma̋ƣa:

• 4.8.5.3 Indirect quotations and questions are expressed by transforming the verb of the direct statement into the corresponding supine. The subject of the verb is in the accusative case. The tense of the supine remains the same as in the direct question. The interrogative word is retained. An interrogative word is placed in the sentence according to its function in the sentence. This is not necessarily first in the sentence. The indirect quotation or question is set off from the main clause by en dashes.

mu nom kıkı̋a: I've done that.

m-u	n-om	kı~kı̋-a
1s-N	that-A.s	PRF~do-IND

mu tús o mum nom kıkı̋u e-te̋e̋a: I told you (that) I've done that.

m-u	t-ús	o	m-um	n-om	kı~kı̋-u	e=te̋e̋-a
1s-N	2s-G	to	1s-A	that-A.s	PRF~do-SUP	PST=say-IND

mu eȝús o–éȝum xán' u-tőpu–e-me̋ta: I asked her when she would arrive.

m-u	eȝ-ús	o	éȝ-um	xán-'	u=tőp-u	e=me̋t-a
1s-N	3-G.s	to	she-A.s	when-ELIS	FUT-arrive-SUP	PST=ask-IND

• 4.8.5.4 This same construction is used with other verbs such as see, know, hear, learn, etc.

mu–éȝum eȝu-da̋a̋rom þyþűku–e-na̋ka: I saw that he had finished his work.

m-u	éȝ-um	eȝu-da̋a̋r-om	þy~þűk-u	e=na̋k-a
1s-N	3-A.s	his=work-A.s	PRF~finish-SUP	PST=see-IND

• 4.8.5.5 The finite dependent verb may depend on adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take an object supine, e.g., ability, fitness, desire, willingness.

a̋tu m̃e̋ṡantu. éȝu dőram e-ne̋e̋þa: Wanting to go, he sought permission.

a̋t-u	m̃e̋ṡ-a-nt-u	éȝ-u	dőr-am	e=ne̋e̋þ-a
go-SUP	wish-IND-AP-N.s	3-N.s	permission-A.s	PST=seek-IND

• 4.8.5.6 Any adjective, adverb, noun or verb may take a dependent supine to limit its meaning.

i-műűlo ȝe̋e̋ku ne̋uðra e̋sa: This plant is useful for healing.

i=műűl-o	ȝa̋k-u	ne̋uðr-a	e̋s-a
this=plant-N.s	heal-SUP	useful-N.s	be-IND

na̋kaþo na̋ku dı̋żo e-e̋sa: The scene was a wonder to behold.

na̋k-a-þ-o	na̋k-u	dı̋ż-o	e=e̋s-a
see-IND-PP-N.s	see-SUP	wonder-N.s	PST=be-IND

• 4.8.5.7 The supine is used where other languages would use the gerund. A modifying adjective is placed in the -a class.

k̬apűs þóósa lı̋ku se̋ba vűűa: Bargaining with the merchant is fun.

k̬ap-űs	þóósa	lı̋k-u	se̋b-o	vűű-a
merchant-G.s	against	bargain-SUP	fun-N.s	be-IND

mu-kőzuk̬e muk̬e lábu ṡa̋lanta mőren re̋iðu de̋e̋sa: My wife and I find riding horses very relaxing.

mu=kőz-u=k̬e	m-u=k̬e	lábu	ṡa̋l-a-nt-a	mőr-en	re̋ið-u	de̋e̋s-a
my=wife-N.s=and	1s-N=and	very	relax-IND-AP-N.s	horse-A.p	ride-SUP	find-IND

• 4.8.5.8 The infinitive as the subject of a verb is translated by the supine.

še̋mu sa̋a̋na e̋sa: To swim (swimming) is healthful.

še̋m-u	sa̋a̋n-a	e̋s-a
swim-SUP	healthy-N.s	be-IND

nom kı̋u tús o ma̋ƣa: It is possible for you to do that.

n-om	kı̋-u	t-ús	o	ma̋ƣ-a
that-A.s	do-SUP	2s.G	for	be.possible-IND

4.8.6 Participles – kááþfeeþga̋nos

• 4.8.6.1 The participle is a verbal adjective, in function partaking of the nature of verb and adjective. There are two participles in Senjecas, the agent and the patient. Each of these occurs in all the moods.
• 4.8.6.1.1 The agent participle (AP) is formed by suffixing -nti to the mood root. The agent participle describes that which it modifies as acting, e.g., m̃e̋nanti, loving, as in m̃e̋nantu ta̋a̋ta, loving father.
• 4.8.6.1.2 The patient participle (PP) is formed by suffixing -þi to the mood root. The patient participle describes that which it modifies as being acted upon, e.g., m̃e̋naþi, beloved, as in m̃e̋naþu ta̋a̋ta, beloved father.
• 4.8.6.2 As with any adjective, participles may take the -u ending and function as nouns, e.g., m̃e̋nantu, lover; m̃e̋naþu, beloved. It is then equivalent to he who, they who, that which, etc., in English.

ȝe̋kantu mu-ta̋a̋ta e̋sa: He who is speaking is my father.

ȝe̋k-a-nt-u	mu=ta̋a̋t-a	e̋s-a
speak-IND-AP-N.s	my=father-N.s	be-IND

• 4.8.6.3 As an adjective, the participle may be modified by an adverb, e.g., súvi m̃e̋naþu ta̋a̋ta, well-beloved father.
• 4.8.6.4 As a verb, the participle may take a direct object

ȝővanto ðűűom na̋kantu. ne̋sku m̃e̋e̋som éna e-ke̋ra: Seeing the approaching storm, the girl went back into the house.

ȝőv-a-nto-Ø	ðűű-om	na̋k-a-ntu-Ø	ne̋sk-u	m̃e̋e̋s-om	éna	e=ke̋r-a
approach-IND-AP-ABS	storm-A.s	see-IND-AP-ABS	girl-N.s	house-A.s	into	PST=return-IND

4.9 Absolute Constructions – m̃ı̋ı̋o ȝe̋xtos

• Adverbial clauses may be translated by absolute constructions. Absolute constructions consist of a noun or pronoun and a participle which are not grammatically connected with the main clause. The noun or pronoun may not refer to the subject of the sentence.
• 4.9.1 When the absolute construction describes a non-motion event, the construction is in the genitive case.

eȝús asurűs e-vuuantűs. m̃us ka̋itus e-vűűa: When he was prince, we were happy.

eȝ-ús	asur-űs	e=vuu-a-nt-űs	m̃-us	ka̋it-us	e=vűű-a
3-G.s	prince-G.s	PST=be-IND-PP-G.s	1p-N	happy-N.s	PST=be-IND

eȝúm edantűm. ga̋a̋ilus ga̋a̋ȝa: While they are eating, the chorus is singing.

eȝ-úm	ed-a-nt-űm	ga̋a̋i-l-us	ga̋a̋ȝ-a
3-G.p	eat-IND-AP-G.p	sing-AG-N.p	sing-IND

• 4.9.2 When the absolute construction describes an event involving motion, the construction is in the accusative case.

őmum þőlom tıta̋rantum. e̋nrus e-őőða: After the army had crossed the bridge, the citizens fled.

őm-um	þől-om	tï~ta̋r-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=őőð-a
army-A.s	bridge-A.s	PRF~cross-IND-AP-A.s	citizen-N.p	PST=flee-IND

őmum þőlom e-ȝőbantum. e̋nrus e-őőða: Before the army neared the bridge, the citizens fled.

őm-um	þől–om	e=ȝőb-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=őőð-a
army-A.s	bridge-A.s	PST=approach-IND-AP-A.s	citizen-N.p	PST=flee-IND

4.10 Subordinate Clauses – fasm̃a̋iþo

• A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and is, therefore, attached to an independent clause. Although a subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone. A clause is joined to a sentence with a subordinate conjunction and may either precede or follow the sentence. An en dash is used to separate the subordinate clause from the main clause. There is no distinction made in Senjecas between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.

4.10.1 Adverbial clauses with the indicative mood – m̃e̋e̋ro kaaþga̋no fasm̃a̋iþos

• 4.10.1.1 Time clauses (ténfasm̃a̋iþos) indicate when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. They are introduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until, till, hardly, scarcely, and no sooner.

eȝu-na̋a̋ȝe e-ne̋ṡa—méti be̋ku e-e̋sa: Her dog died when she was young.

eȝu=na̋a̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋ṡ-a	méti	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
her=G.s	dog-N.s	PST=die-IND	when	young-N.s	PST=be-IND

• 4.10.1.2. Reason clauses (f̨úúðfasm̃a̋iþos) indicate the reason for something. They are introduced by the conjunctions because, since, as, for, now that, considering that, and given that.

éȝu ge̋gu še̋du fe̋e̋a—hi éȝum m̃e̋na: She can’t stay angry, because she loves him.

éȝ-u	ge̋g-u	še̋d-u	fe̋e̋-a	hi	éȝ-um	m̃e̋n-a
3-N.s	angry-N.s	remain-SUP	unable-IND	because	3-A.s	love-IND

• 4.10.1.3 Result clauses (ƥúvfasm̃a̋iþos) indicate the result of some action. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, and with the result that.

la̋ko šo méévi de̋ba—ƥúvi ne̋ðu fe̋e̋a: My leg hurts so much that I cannot walk.

la̋k-o	šo	méé-vi	de̋b-a	ƥűvi	ne̋ð-u	fe̋e̋-a
leg-N.s	so	much-ADV	hurt.IND	so.that	walk-SUP	unable-IND

éȝu šo féðvi tűngom e-t̬ı̋va—ƥűvi éȝo e-ȝa̋fa: He opened the window so roughly that it broke.

éȝ-u	šo	féð-vi	tűng-om	e=t̬ı̋v-a	ƥűvi	éȝ-o	e=ȝa̋f-a
3-N.s	so	force-ADV	window-A.s	PST=open-IND	so.that	3-N.s	PST=break-IND

• 4.10.1.4 Concessive clauses (áifasm̃a̋iþos) indicate that one statement contrasts with another. They are introduced by the conjunctions although, (even) though, and while.

m̃us u-vı̋da—sámi sűűm̃a: We will leave, even though it is raining.

m̃-us	u=vı̋d-a	sámi	sűűm̃-a
1p-N	FUT=leave-IND	even.though	rain-IND

• 4.10.1.5 Clauses of place (ðééfasm̃a̋iþos) indicate the location or position of something. They are introduced by the adverbs that answer the question where?: anywhere, everywhere, etc.

ṡı̋ṡu ka̋itu vűűa—vái vűűa: The child is happy where he is.

ṡı̋ṡ-u	ka̋it-u	vűű-a	vái	vűű-a
child-N.s	happy-N.s.	be-IND	where	be-IND

• 4.10.1.6 Clauses of manner (móóðfasm̃a̋iþos) indicate someone's behavior or the way something is done. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, like, and the way.

sőþlus pe̋e̋kam e-þűka—épi soþve̋e̋l̤u e-e̋e̋va: The soldiers carried out the plan as the general had ordered.

sőþl-us	pe̋e̋k-am	e=þűk-a	épi	soþ.ve̋e̋l-l-u	e=e̋e̋v-a
soldier-N.p	plan-A.s	PST=carry.out-IND	as	war.be_in_charge-AG-N.s	PST=PRF~order-IND

4.10.2 Adverbial clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so kaaþga̋no fasm̃a̋iþos

• 4.10.2.1 Conditional clauses (k̨árfasm̃a̋iþos) indicate a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. They are introduced by the words if, unless, and lest. The verb in conditional clauses is in the subjunctive mood.

m̃us u-a̋ta ne—ébi ṡúm̃vi suum̃e̋ȝa: If it rains tomorrow, we won’t go.

m̃-us	u=a̋t-a	ne	ébi	ṡúm̃-vi	suum̃-e̋ȝ-a
1p-N	FUT=go-IND	not	if	tomorrow-ADV	rain-SBJ

• 4.10.2.2 Clauses of purpose (tááðfasm̃a̋iþos) indicate the purpose of an action. They are introduced by the words so that and in order that.

éȝu mőrem e-pa̋ga—táád' ii-éȝu pűűnu maƣe̋ȝa: He steadied the horse so that she could mount.

éȝ-u	mőr-em	e=pa̋g-a	táád-'	ii=éȝ-u	pűűn-u	maƣ-e̋ȝa
3-N.s	horse-A.s	PST=steady-IND	so.that-ELIS	F=3.N.s	mount-SUP	be.able-SBJ

Clauses of purpose may not be deranked in Senjecas. It is possible to say, “He steadied the horse so that he could mount,” but it is not possible to say, “He steadied the horse in order to mount.”

4.10.3 Noun clauses with the indicative mood – ȝe̋to fe̋e̋to fasm̃a̋iþos

• A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or the object of a preposition. Some of the relative conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, whom, why, what, how, when, whoever, whomever, and where.
• Noun clauses are placed where a simple noun would be placed.

• 4.10.3.1 Subject

táu éȝu e̋sa—vı̋na ne: Who he is is of no importance.

tá-u	éȝ-u	e̋s-a	vı̋n-a	ne
who-N.s	3-N.s	be-IND	be.of.importance-IND	not

• 4.10.3.2 Apposition

no–táom tu e-te̋e̋a—mum sűűra: What you said displeases me.

n-o	tá-om	t-u	e=te̋e̋-a	m-um	sűűr-a
that-N.s	which-A.s	2s-N	PST=say-IND	1s-A	displease-IND

• 4.10.3.3 Predicate nominative

When the noun clause functions as a predicate nominative the noun clause precedes the main clause.

ȝa vísu éstu íðu vűűa—va̋a̋do te̋e̋o e̋sa: The good news is that everyone is still here.

ȝa	vís-u	éstu	íðu	vűű-a	va̋a̋do-Ø	te̋e̋-o	e̋s-a
REL	everyone-N.s	still	here	be-IND	good-ABS	news-N.s	be-IND

• 4.10.3.4 Direct Object

mu—táu éȝu e̋sa—sa̋a̋ra: I know who he is.

m-u	tá-u	éȝ-u	e̋s-a	sa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	who-N.s	3-N.s	be-IND	know-IND

mu—fúsi tu nom e-te̋e̋a—sa̋a̋ra: I know why you said it.

m-u	fúsi	t-u	n-om	e=te̋e̋-a	sa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	why	2s-N	that-A.s	PST=say-IND	know-IND

• 4.10.3.5 Object of a preposition

éȝu—k̬énu þúntu tőpa—o som u-dőőa: He will give this to whoever arrives first.

éȝ-u	k̬én-u	þúnt-u	tőp-a	o	s-om	u=dőő-a
3-N.s	whoever-N.s	first-ADV	arrive-IND	to	this-A.s	FUT=give-IND

4.10.4 Noun clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so fe̋e̋to fasm̃a̋iþos

• 4.10.4.1 Clauses of fearing (nááfasm̃a̋iþos)

mu—ȝa so moode̋ȝa—e-na̋a̋a: I feared/was afraid (that) this would happen.

m-u	ȝa	s-o	mood-e̋ȝ-a	e=na̋a̋-a
1s-N	REL	this-N.s	happen-SBJ	PST=fear-IND

mu—ȝa no e-mymoode̋ȝa—e-na̋a̋a: I feared/was afraid (that) that had happened.

m-u	ȝa	n-o	e=my~mood-e̋ȝa	e=na̋a̋-a
1s-N	REL	that-N.s	PST=PRF~happen-SBJ	PST=fear-IND

• 4.10.4.2 Clauses of hoping (ísfasm̃a̋iþos)

mu—ȝa éȝu ƣőstam tááda u-ǧeme̋ȝa—ı̋ṡa: I hope (that) he will come for a visit.

m-u	ȝa	éȝ-u	ƣőst-am	tááda	ǧem-e̋ȝa	ı̋ṡ-a
1-N.s	REL	3-N.s	visit-A.s	for	come-SBJ	hope-IND

4.10.5 Adjectival (Relative) Clauses – ȝe̋to gansa̋m̃o fasm̃a̋iþos

• Adjectival clauses function as adjectives, answering questions such as what kind?, how many? or which one?. They are introduced by the relative pronoun táu and the verb is in the indicative mood. Any relative adverbs (when, where, why) or pronouns (who, whom, whose, that, which) are replaced by the corresponding non-relative adverb or pronoun. Like all adjectives they precede the noun they describe.

so—táom mu e-ı̋ta—ge̋lo e̋sa: This is the ball (that/which) I was bouncing.

s-o	tá-om	m-u	e=ı̋t-a	ge̋l-o	e̋s-a
this-N.s	which-A.s	1s-N	PST=bounce-IND	ball-N.s	be-IND

no—vái mu e-ƣa̋a̋ra—m̃e̋e̋so e̋sa: That is the house where I grew up.

n-o	vái	m-u	e=ƣa̋a̋r-a	m̃e̋e̋s-o	e̋s-a
that-N.s	where	1s-N	PST=grow.up-IND	house-N.s	be-IND

éȝu—taús mőr' e-ne̋ṡa—m̃ı̋ı̋ru e̋sa: He is the man whose horse died.

éȝ-u	ta-ús	mőr-'	e=ne̋ṡ-a	m̃ı̋ı̋r-u	e̋s-a
3-N.s	who-G.s	horse-ELIS	PST=die-IND	man-N.s	be-IND

4.10.6 Conditional clauses – k̨a̋ro fasm̃a̋iþos

• Conditional clauses (protasis) are introduced by the conjunction ébi and (with one exception) have their verb in the subjunctive mood. The main clause (apodosis) is introduced by the conjunction toári and is in the subjunctive mood. In these clauses, the protasis precedes the apodosis. An en dash (–) (meinbőto) is used to separate the two clauses.
• 4.10.6.1 Future More-Vivid sentences express future results of probable or expected conditions. The verb in the apodosis is in the future indicative because it has not happened yet.

ébi suum̃e̋ȝa. toári pa̋a̋vos ma̋a̋nos u-vűűa: If it rains, (then) the roads will be wet.

ébi	suum̃-e̋ȝa	toári	pa̋a̋v-os	ma̋a̋n-os	u=vűű-a
if	rain-SBJ	then	road-N.p	wet-N.p	FUT=be-IND

• 4.10.6.2 Future Less-Vivid sentences express future results for conditions that are considered improbable. In this case, the main verb is also in the subjunctive mood.

ébi mu ma̋to pı̋ı̋nom e-ude̋ȝa. toári na̋a̋m̃om sae̋ȝa: If I had enough money, I would buy a boat.

ébi	m-u	ma̋to-Ø	pı̋ı̋n-om	e=ud-e̋ȝa	toári	na̋a̋m̃-om	sa-e̋ȝa
if	1s-N	enough-ABS	money-A.s	PST=have-SBJ	then	boat-A.s	buy-SBJ

• 4.10.6.3 Contrafactual sentences (present and past mutatis mutandis) express the results of untrue conditions. Both verbs are in the subjunctive mood.

ébi m' ur-re̋e̋ƣu vuue̋ȝa. toári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vuue̋ȝa: If I were king (and I'm not), you would be queen.

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vuu-e̋ȝa	toári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vuu-e̋ȝa
if	1s-ELIS	M=king-N.s	be-SBJ	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	be-SBJ

ébi m’ ur-re̋e̋ƣu e-vyvuue̋ȝa. toári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vyvuue̋ȝa: If I had been king (and I wasn't), you would have been queen.

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	e-vy~vuu-e̋ȝa	toári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vy~vuu-e̋ȝa
if	1s-ELIS	M=king-N.s	PST=PRF~be-SBJ	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	PRF~be-SBJ

• 4.10.6.4 Present General sentences are an exception. Their verbs are in the indicative mood for they describe conditions that are true.

ébi m' ur-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa. toári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa: If I am king (and I am), then you are queen.

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-a	toári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-a
if	1s.-ELIS	M=king-N.s	be-IND	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	be-IND

• 4.10.6.5 In other situations, the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive mood.

ébi éȝu ímu íðu vuue̋ȝa. toári mu ra̋a̋da. If she is here now, I am glad.

ébi	éȝ-u	ímu	íðu	vuu-e̋ȝ-a	toári	m-u	ra̋a̋d-a.
if	3-N.s	now	here	be-SBJ	then	1s-N	be.glad-IND

4.10.7 Independent Clauses – še̋vo fa̋so fasm̃a̋iþos

• 4.10.7.1 Independent clauses introduced by the postposition ša, but for.

hele̋' ša. m̃us n̨e̋rtum nınake̋ȝa mee: But for the lightning we would/might not have seen the enemy.

hel-e̋-'	ša	m̃-us	n̨e̋rt-um	nı~nak-e̋ȝa	mee:
lightning-G.s-ELIS	but.for	1p-N	enemy-A.s	PRF~see-SBJ	not

• 4.10.7.2 To make a wish in an independent clause.

(tu) ka̋itu ese̋ȝa: May you be happy!

t-u	ka̋it-u	es-e̋ȝa:
2s-N	happy-N.s	be-SBJ

• 4.10.7.3 To make a polite request, instead of adding please to a command. This construction is always used with superiors.

tú se̋de: Sit down!

t-ú	se̋d-e
2s-V	sit-IMP

tú sede̋ȝa: Please/Do sit down.

t-ú	sed-e̋ȝa
2s-V	sit-SBJ

• 4.10.8 Infinitive clauses
• Certain verbs take, as an object, a clause with the verb in the supine and the subject in the accusative case.

éȝu pőikum m̃a̋lum e̋su m̃e̋ṡa: He wants his son to be strong.

éȝ-u	pőik-um	m̃a̋l-um	e̋s-u	m̃e̋ṡ-a
3-N.s	son-A.s	strong-A.s	be-SUP	want-IND

mu éȝum salááþvi u-me̋bu ve̋na: I hear that she is dancing tonight.

m-u	éȝ-um	sa.lááþ=vi	u=me̋b-u	ve̋n-a
1s.N	3-A.s	this.night=ADV	FUT=dance-SUP	hear-IND

4.11 Conjunctions – ƣeðsa̋m̃os

• A conjunction is a word or a phrase that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses together. It is an invariable particle that, with but few exceptions, ends in –i. A list of conjunctions can be found in the Appendices.

4.11.1 Coordinating conjunctions

• A coordinating conjunction (párƣeðsa̋m̃o) joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. The two equal clauses or sentences are separated by a period (k̬ilbőto).

le̋e̋gu e-tőpa. ésti kétu xa̋lo e-e̋sa: The doctor arrived but it was too late.

le̋e̋g-u	e=tőp-a	ésti	kétu	xa̋l-o	e=e̋s-a
doctor-N.s	PST=arrive-IND	but	too	late-N.s	PST=be-IND

• 4.11.1.1 Da, and, is used to connect two or more sentences or clauses. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.

mu ɫőmom e-ȝa̋ra. da éȝom e-fa̋a̋ra: I wrote a story and sold it.

m-u	ɫőm-om	e=ȝa̋r-a	da	éȝ-om	e=fa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	story-A.s	PST=write-IND	and	3-A.s	PST=sell-IND

• 4.11.1.1.1 The enclitic conjunction -k̬e, and, is used to connect two or more individual words, or, at most, words with a single-word modifier. Whether to use da or -k̬e is left to the discretion of the speaker or writer.

mu abe̋lonk̬e k̨orte̋monk̬e ka̋a: I like apples and pears.

m-u	abe̋l-on=k̬e	k̨orte̋m-on=k̬e	ka̋-a
1s-N	apple-A.pl=and	pear-A.pl=and	like-IND

• 4.11.1.2 The inclusive m̃o, or, is used to connect two or more sentences or clauses. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.

m' u-ǧe̋ma. m̃o tum u-ha̋m̃a: I will come or I will call you.

m-'	u=ǧe̋m-a	m̃o	t-um	u=ha̋m̃-a
1s-ELIS	FUT=come-IND	or	2s-A	FUT=call-IND

• 4.11.1.2.1 The enclitic conjunction -m̃e, or, is used to connect two or more individual words or, at most, words with a single-word modifier. Whether to use m̃o or -m̃e is left to the discretion of the speaker or writer.

mu abe̋lomm̃e k̨orte̋momm̃e te̋fomm̃e u-tőƣa: I will bring an apple, (or) a pear, or a peach.

m-u	abe̋l-om=m̃e	k̨orte̋m-om=m̃e	te̋f-om=m̃e	u=tőƣ-a
1s-N	apple-A.s=or	pear-A.s=or	peach-A.s=or	FUT=bring-IND

• 4.11.1.2.2 The exclusive meaning is translated with the co-ordinate conjunction m̃o...m̃o, either…or.

mu abe̋lomm̃e k̨orte̋momm̃e u-tőƣa: I will bring either an apple or a pear.

m-u	abe̋l-om=m̃e	k̨orte̋m-om=m̃e	u=tőƣ-a
1s-N	apple-A.s=or	pear-A.s=or	FUT=bring-IND

• 4.11.1.2.3 When or indicates uncertainty or possibility, it is translated by the adverb máƣvi, maybe.

éȝu d̬ő. máƣvi tı̋r. mőren űða: He owns two or/maybe three horses.

éȝ-u	d̬ő	máƣ=vi	tı̋r	mőr-en	űð-a
3-N.s	two	possible-ADV	three	horse-A.p	own-IND

• 4.11.1.2.4 When or connects two equivalent words or expressions, it is translated by the phrase táo te̋ida, which means.

éȝu de̋rm̃om—táo te̋ida amṡe̋e̋m̃om—da̋ma: He suffers from eczema, or a skin inflammation.

éȝ-u	de̋rm̃-om	tá-o	te̋id-a	am.ṡe̋e̋m̃-om	da̋ma
3-N.s	eczema-A.s	which-N.s	mean-IND	skin.inflammation-A.s	suffer.from-IND

4.11.2 Correlative conjunctions

• Correlative conjunctions (ȝémƣeðsa̋m̃o) work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence.

vóói sőþlus vóói kőővus me̋bom do u-ǧe̋ma: Both the soldiers and the nobles will come to the dance.

vóói	sőþl-us	vóói	kőőv-us	me̋b-om	do	u=ǧe̋m-a
both	soldier-N.p	both-ABS	noble-N.p	dance-A.s	to	FUT=come-IND

4.11.3 Subordinating conjunction

• A subordinating conjunction (fásƣeðsa̋m̃o) joins an independent and a dependent clause. The two clauses are separated by an en dash (meinbőto).

eȝu-na̋a̋ȝ' e-ne̋ṡa—méti éȝu e-be̋ka: Her dog died when she was young.

eȝu-na̋a̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋ṡ-a	méti	éȝ-u	e=be̋k-a
her=dog-N.s	PST=die-IND	when	3-N.s	young-N.s	PST=be.young-IND

4.12 Direct Quotations – se̋e̋iða anva̋a̋as

• Direct quotations are treated as independent sentences, the quotation following the verb of saying. The quotative particle (QUOT) m̃a(r) is placed before and after the quoted words. The form m̃ar is used if followed by a word beginning with a vowel and at the end of the quotation.

mu e-te̋e̋a: m̃a mu sade̋mom do u-a̋ta m̃ar: I said, "I will go to the store."

m-u	e=te̋e̋-a	m̃a	m-u	sa.de̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a	m̃ar
1s-N	PST=say-IND	QUOT	1s-N	buy.building-N.s	to	FUT=go-IND	QUOT

mu e-me̋ta: m̃a tu sade̋mom do u-a̋ta me m̃ar: I asked, "Will you go to the store?"

m-u	e=me̋t-a	m̃a	t-u	sa.de̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a	me	m̃ar
1s-N	PST=ask-IND	QUOT	2s-N	buy.building-A.s	to	FUT=go-IND	Q	QUOT

4.13 Indirect Speech – alse̋e̋iða sa̋m̃ra

• 4.13.1 In indirect speech the exact words of someone are reported by someone else. The verb in the main clause is a verb of speaking (speak, say, tell, report, answer, reply, respond), of knowing (know, understand, realize), or of perceiving (hear, feel, observe, sense). The reported words are placed before the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech.

He said, "It is raining hard." éȝu e-te̋e̋a: m̃a féðvi sűűm̃a m̃ar: He said (that) it was raining hard. éȝu féðvi sűűm̃u e-te̋e̋a: He said, "It was raining hard." éȝu e-te̋e̋a: m̃a féðvi e-sűűm̃a m̃ar:He said (that) it was raining hard. éȝu féðvi e-sűűm̃u e-te̋e̋a:

• 4.13.2 In indirect questions the implied direct question is placed before the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The interrogative word is changed to its relative counterpart. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech. An en dash separates the two clauses.

Why did you do that? tu xáru nom e-kı̋a:I know why you did that? mu–f̨údi tum nom e-kı̋u–sa̋a̋ra:

4.14 Interrogative Sentences – méþm̃o ševm̃a̋iþos

• 4.14.1 A lexically marked question is one that contains an interrogative pronoun, pronominal adjective or adverb. The verb in this type of question does not take the interrogative particle me. Note that an interrogative word is placed in the position of its part of speech, which is not necessarily sentence initial.

xu lőukom tára ǧe̋ma: Who is coming across the field?

x-u	lőuk-om	tára	ǧe̋m-a
who-N.s	field-A.s	across	come-IND

þaav̈a̋a̋nlu xánu i-xe̋mon u-ke̋ra: When will the cobbler return those tools?

þaav-va̋a̋n-l-u	xánu	a=xe̋m-on	u=ke̋r-a
shoe-make-AG-N.s	when	that=tool-A.p	FUT=return-IND

• 4.14.2 It is possible for a lexically marked sentence to contain two or more interrogative words.

xu xánu m̃un u-þőna: Who will help us and when (will he)?

x-u	xánu	m̃-un	u=þőn-a
who-N.s	when	1p-A	FUT=help-IND

• 4.14.3 The interrogative particle me, following the verb, is used to mark questions that are not marked lexically. It implies nothing as to the answer expected. There is no alteration of the pitches.

tu m̃e̋inom pőőȝa me: Do you drink wine?

t-u	m̃e̋in-om	pőőȝ-a	me
2s-N	wine-A.s	drink-IND	Q

• 4.14.3.1 In answering this type of question, "yes" and "no" are not used. Instead, the verb is repeated without a pronoun subject.

Yes, I do. pőőȝa:

No, I don't. pőőȝa ne:

• 4.14.3.2 If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made and is followed by the phrase ṡ̨őka me, agree Q.

You are drinking wine, aren't you (don’t you agree)? tu m̃e̋inom pőőȝa. ṡ̨őxa me:

The answer is either ṡ̨őka, "agree," or ṡ̨őka ne, "not agree."

• 4.14.3.3 If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made and is followed by the phrase, ṡ̨őka me, "agree Q".

You are not drinking wine, are you (don’t you agree)? tu m̃e̋inom pőőȝa ne. ṡ̨őka me:

The answer is either ṡ̨őka, "agree," or ṡ̨őka ne, "not agree".