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Vrkhazhian (Šat Vərxažu) is a West Takshian language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhians who live in [[The Vrkhazhians|the Empire of Yatvṛḵaž]]. The earliest form of this language, known as Classical Vrkhazhian, was spoken as early as 887 years ago.
<big>
Vrkhazhian (''Śād Warḫāsaḫ'' "Mouth of Vrkhazh") is a language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhians who live in [[The Vrkhazhians|Warḫāsam]].
{{infobox
{{infobox
|image=Flag-Vrkhazh.png
|image=VrkhazhianFlagSRLT.png
|size=350px
|size=350px
|bg=#6BB6B6
|bg=#32cdcd
|name=Vrkhazhian
|name=Vrkhazhian
|native=Šat Vərxažu, Šada Vərxažšəya
|native=Śād Warḫāsaḫ, Warḫāsāli
|pronounce=/ˈçat βərxaˈʝu/, /ˈçada βərxaçˈçəja/
|pronounce=[ˈɬɑːd wɑr.ˈxɑː.sɑx], [wɑr.xɑː.ˈsɑː.li]
|in=Vrkhazh (Vərxaža)
|in=Vrkhazh (Warḫāsam)
|script=ʾAḵvaha Vərxažšəyi
|script=Añmānas
|tree=Haxyakian Languages
|tree=Proto-Ch'ahdic
:Haxyakian
:Proto-A
::Himoshian
::Proto-AA
:::Old Takshian
:::Proto-AAA
::::West Takshian
::::Old Vrkhazhian
:::::Classical Vrkhazhian
:::::'''Imperial Vrkh.'''
::::::'''Modern Vrkhazhian'''
:::::'''Common Vrkh.'''
|morph=moderately fusional and agglutinative
|morph=agglutinative, triconsonantal root-based morphology
|ms=nominative-accusative  
|ms=nominative-accusative  
|wo=SOV (active voice)/VSX (passive voice)
|wo=Free word order, but typically verb-initial
|creator=[[User:Ahzoh|Malcolm G. Holborne]]}}
|creator=[[User:Ahzoh|Malcolm G. Holborne]]}}




==History==
==History==
===Dialects===
===Registers===
Vrkhazhian is analyzed as having two major dialects:
Vrkhazhian is divided into two primary registers:


* '''Uzirshaya''' is spoken in the south-west of Vrkhazh and named after the city from which it originated, '''ʾUzayra-Toma'''.
* Imperial Vrkhazhian ('''Ḳabbāˀas''' ''"The Royal [Speech]"'') is the written variety of Vrkhazhian based upon a dialect of Old Vrkhazhian spoken by the founder of the Empire, Ezu-Nardikh the Great, and his supporters.
* '''Mukhebshaya''' is spoken in the north-east of Vrkhazh and named after the city '''Miḵba-Toma'''.
* Common Vrkhazhian ('''Lumbāˀas''' ''"The Common [Speech]"'') is the spoken variety based around the dialect of the capital city of Uzur.
 
Despite being considered dialects of the same language, they are somewhat mutually unintelligible to each other.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
The table below shows the consonant phonemes found in the major dialects of Vrkhazhian. Phonemes in blue are found only in the Mukhebic dialect while phonemes in red are found only in the Uzerian dialect.
The table below shows the 25 consonant phonemes found in Vrkhazhian. Letters in angle brackets indicate where the romanization of the phoneme differs from its IPA representation.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;"
|+Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes
|-
|-
!rowspan=2 COLSPAN=2|&nbsp;
! style="width: 8em;" rowspan="2" colspan="2" |  
!rowspan=2|Bilabial
! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Bilabial
!colspan=2|Alveolar
! colspan="2" | Coronal
!rowspan=2|Palatal
! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Velar
!rowspan=2|Velar
! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Glottal
!rowspan=2|Glottal
|-
|-
!<small>Central</small>
! style="width: 4em; font-size: smaller" | Central
!<small>Lateral</small>
! style="width: 4em; font-size: smaller" | Lateral
|-
|-
!colspan=2|Nasal
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| '''m''' [m]
| m
| '''n''' [n] ||
| n
|
|
| '''ñ''' [ŋ]
| ŋ ⟨'''''n̮'''''⟩
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | Stop
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiceless
| p
| t
|
|
| k
| rowspan="3" | ʔ ⟨'''''ˀ'''''⟩
|-
|-
!rowspan=3|Stop
! style="font-size: smaller" | Ejective
!<small>Voiceless</small>
| pʼ ⟨'''''ṗ'''''⟩
| '''p''' [p]
| tʼ ⟨'''''ṭ'''''⟩
| '''t''' [t] ||
|
| '''c''' [c]
| kʼ ⟨'''''ḳ'''''⟩
| '''k''' [k]
| '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
|-
|-
!<small>Ejective</small>
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiced
| '''ṗ''' [pʼ]
| b
| '''ṭ''' [tʼ] ||
| d
| '''ċ''' [cʼ]
| '''ḳ''' [kʼ]
|
|
| g
|-
! rowspan="3" | Fricative
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiceless
| f
| s
| ɬ ⟨'''''ś'''''⟩
| x ⟨'''''ḫ'''''⟩
|
|-
|-
!<small>Voiced</small>
! style="font-size: smaller" | Ejective
| '''b''' [b]
|
| '''d''' [d] ||
| sʼ ⟨'''''ṣ'''''⟩
| '''j''' [ɟ]
| ɬʼ ⟨'''''ṣ́'''''⟩
| '''g''' [g]
|
|
|
|-
|-
!rowspan=3|Fricative
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiced
!<small>Voiceless</small>
|
| '''f''' [ɸ~f]
| z
| '''s''' [s] || <span style="color:red;">'''ś''' [ɬ]</span>
| ɮ ⟨'''''ź'''''⟩
| '''š''' [ç]
| '''x''' [x]
|
|
|
|-
|-
!<small>Ejective</small>
! colspan="2" | Liquid
|
|
| '''ṣ''' [sʼ] || <span style="color:red;">'''ṣ́''' [ɬʼ]</span>
| r
| '''ṣ̌''' [çʼ]
| l
| '''x̣''' [xʼ]
|  
|
|
|-
|-
!<small>Voiced</small>
! colspan="2" | Semivowel
| '''v''' [β~v]
| w
| '''z''' [z] || <span style="color:red;">'''l''' [ɮ]</span>
| '''ž''' [ʝ]
| '''ǧ''' [ɣ]
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Liquid/Trill
|
|
| '''r''' [r]|| <span style="color:blue;">'''l''' [l]</span>
| j ⟨'''''y'''''⟩
| '''y''' [j]
|  
| '''w''' [w]
| '''h''' [ʕ~ɦ]
|-
|-
|}
|}
<div style="font-size: small; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em">''The sonorants /r n/ also have syllabic counterparts /r̩ n̩/, which are romanized as ⟨ṛ ṇ⟩.''</div>
All consonants except for /j w ʔ/ can be geminated (pronounced twice as long) which is indicated in writing by simply doubling the letter.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Line 114: Line 116:
|-
|-
!
!
! style="width: 50px; " |Front
! style="width: 70px; " |Front
! style="width: 50px; " |Central
! style="width: 70px; " |Back
! style="width: 50px; " |Back
|-
|-
!Close
!Close
| '''i''' [i]
| i iː
|
| u uː
| '''u''' [u]
|-
!Mid
| '''e''' [e̞]
| '''ə''' [ə]
| '''o''' [o̞]
|-
|-
!Open
!Open
|colspan="3"| '''a''' [a~ɑ]
| ɛ ɛː
| ɑ ɑː
|}
|}
Vrkhazhian also has two diphthongs, which are found only in Uzerian:
 
{|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;"
The short vowels /ɛ ɑ i u/ are represented in writing as ⟨e a i u⟩ while the long vowels /ɛː ɑː iː uː/ are either represented with a macron ⟨ē, ā, ī, ū⟩ or a circumflex ⟨ê, â, î, û⟩. The usage of a circumflex in writing is to indicate vowel coalescence as a result of the contraction of the weak consonants /ʔ j w/.
|-
!
! style="width: 50px; " |Front
! style="width: 50px; " |Back
|-
!Open to high
| '''ay''' [ai̯]
| '''aw''' [au̯]
|-
|}
In Mukhebic, the diphthongs instead become the vowels '''ē''' [eː], '''ō''' [oː], '''ī''' [iː], and '''ū''' [uː].


===Allophony===
===Allophony===
*The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/ undergo the process of neutralization where they are analyzed as [m] before labial consonants, [n] before alveolar consonants, [ɲ] before palatal consonants, and [ŋ] before velar consonants (including /w/).
====Plosives====
*Consonants assimilate in voicing with adjacent consonants directly following them.
*The plosives /p b t d k g/ assimilate in voicing when they precede a plosive of the same place of articulation. An example of this allophony is demonstrated with the verb '''alad-''' "fight, oppose": under normal circumstances its stem is '''alad-''' such as in '''aladna''' "I fought, I opposed"; however, when, for example, the first person plural subject suffix '''-ta''' is  added, it becomes '''alatta''' "we fought, we opposed"
*The consonants /j w/ are analyzed as [ʝ β] when geminated as well as before voiced consonants and [ç ɸ] before voiceless consonants.
*The plosives /p b t d k g/ also assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede fricatives of the same place of articulation
*The consonant /h/ assimilates in place of articulation and voicing with adjacent fricatives directly before them.


===Syllable Structure===
====Nasals====
The syllable structure of Vrkhazhian is analyzed as (C)CV(C)(C), where C stands for a consonant, V stands for a vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant. More specifically, words can only have consonant clusters of up to two adjacent consonants. This means the first syllable can have a maximal syllable of CCVC, medial syllables can have maximal syllables of CVC, and the last syllable can have a maximal syllable of CVCC.
*???


Words cannot have a vowel hiatus, thus the epenthetic phonemes /j w h/ are inserted between two adjacent vowels.
====Fricatives====
Additionally, since syllables must be preceded by a consonant, words that would have historically begun with a vowel have a glottal stop preceding them. However, the glottal stop has since been elided word-initially in most dialects.
*the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede another fricative of the same place of articulation.
===Prosody===
*the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ become affricates word-initially.
Stress in Vrkhazhian is right-leaning and based on syllable weight; stress is placed on the second-last (penultimate) syllable if the last syllable is open (ending in a vowel or diphthong) and placed on the last (ultimate) syllable if the syllable is closed (ending in a consonant). Stress also occurs in a iambic pattern, alternating between unstressed and stressed syllables.


Vrkhazhian exhibits sandhi over word boundaries, which often cause coalescence between word-final and word-initial vowels. The sandhi may also cause changes in the stress patterns of many words in a sentence, including making unstressed monosyllables stressed.
====Other====
*The velar consonants /ŋ k g x/ become partially-rounded [ŋ͗ k̹ g͗ x̹] or fully-rounded [ŋʷ kʷ gʷ xʷ] before back vowels.


==Grammar==
===Symmetrical Assimilation===
===Morphology===
{|
====Overview====
|
Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting language, and morphologically, it is a triconsonatal root language: a kind of non-concatenative morphology whereby its roots consist of an abstract set of consonants which a pattern of vowels called transfixes are placed between. Most of these roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two-letter (biliteral) and four-letter (quadriliteral) roots. Very rare, however, are five-letter (pentaliteral) roots, all of which are entirely nouns.
{| class="wikitable"  
 
|-
====Nominal morphology====
! Components
{{main|Nouns in Vrkhazhian}}
! Result
 
|-
Vrkhazhian nouns are called '''maḡyiman''' (singular '''maḡyima'''). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are five cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, allative, and ablative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine.
| b + p
 
| rowspan="2" | pp
====Adjectival morphology====
Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender and number in agreement with the noun they modify. They always follow the noun and are almost entirely derived from verbs, with a few exceptions.
 
Most adjectives take the form C₁ərC₂aC₃. Below is an example adjective derived from the verb '''s-ǧ-l''' (to be old):
{| class="wikitable"
|+ "Old"
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.)
|-
! Singular
| ''sərǧal-i'' || ''sərǧal-a''
|-
! Plural
| ''sərǧal-i-n'' || ''sərǧal-a-n''
|-
|}
Roots where the last two consonants are the same take the form C₁aC₂C₁aC₃. Below is an example adjective derived from the verb '''d-n-n''' (to be heavy):
{| class="wikitable"
|+ "Heavy"
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.)
|-
! Singular
| ''dandan-i'' || ''dandan-a''
|-
! Plural
| ''dandan-i-n'' || ''dandan-a-n''
|-
|}
 
====Verbal morphology====
{{main|Verbs in Vrkhazhian}}
 
Vrkhazhian verbs are called '''madsiran''' (singular '''madsira'''). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root (which is collectively called '''masčiši''' and translated as "pattern"), though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active, passive, causative, and reflexive). There are five tenses (past, past progressive, present, present progressive, and future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. There is only one aspect: the perfect, called '''saẕkera''', which is indicated by reduplicating the entire verb. Additionally, there are also five moods (indicative, jussive, subjunctive, commissive, and propositive) and these are also indicated by prefix, placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix '''-am'''.
 
When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb '''d-s-r''' (to do, to perform, to execute, to act). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the active present singular indicative, it is called '''dasur''' because that is the active present singular form of the verb.
 
===Pronouns===
In Vrkhazhian, there are seven pronouns, each of which have their own forms for each of the six cases. In singular and plural, the 2nd and 3rd persons differentiate gender, while the 1st person does not. Instead, the 1st person plural pronouns are distinguished by clusivity: the inclusive 1st person plural includes the speaker and the addressee, while the exclusive 1st person plural excludes the addressee.
====Indicative Pronouns====
{| class="wikitable"
|+Personal Pronouns - Indicative
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive || colspan=2 | Allative || colspan=2 | Ablative || colspan=2 | Instrumental
|-
|-
! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
| m + p
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|1st
| p + b
!<small>inclusive</small>
| rowspan="2" | bb
| rowspan=2|ʾama || ḳñama || rowspan=2|šadib || ḳñameb || rowspan=2|šadek || ḳñamek || rowspan=2|šadeš || ḳñamaheš || rowspan=2|šadat || ḳñamahat || rowspan=2|šadux || ḳñamahux
|-
|-
!<small>exclusive</small>
| m + b
| šñama || šñameb || šñamek || šñamaheš || šñamahat || šñamahux
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
|}
!<small>masculine</small>
|
| ši || šin || šib || šinib || šek || šinak || šiyeš || šineš || šiyat || šinat || šiyux || šinux
|
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
! Components
| ša || šan || šeb || šanib || šak || šanak || šaheš || šaneš || šahat || šanat || šahux || šanux
! Result
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
| d + t
!<small>masculine</small>
| rowspan="2" | tt
| ḳi || ḳin || ḳib || ḳinib || ḳek || ḳinak || ḳiyeš || ḳineš || ḳiyat || ḳinat || ḳiyux || ḳinux
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| n + t
| ḳa || ḳan || ḳeb || ḳanib || ḳak || ḳanak || ḳaheš || ḳaneš || ḳahat || ḳanat || ḳahux || ḳanux
|-
|-
|}
| t + d
 
| rowspan="2" | dd
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Demonstrative Pronouns - Indicative
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive || colspan=2 | Allative || colspan=2 | Ablative || colspan=2 | Instrumental
|-
|-
! colspan=2|Deixis ||  || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
| n + d
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|Proximal
|}
!<small>masculine</small>
|
| ṣəhi || ṣəhin ||ṣəhib || ṣəhinib || ṣəhek || ṣəhinak || ṣəhiyeš || ṣəhineš || ṣəhiyat || ṣəhinat || ṣəhiyux || ṣəhinux
|
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
! Components
| ṣəha || ṣəhan ||ṣəheb || ṣəhanib || ṣəhak || ṣəhanak || ṣəhaheš || ṣəhaneš || ṣəhahat || ṣəhanat || ṣəhahux || ṣəhanux
! Result
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|Medial
| g + k
!<small>masculine</small>
| rowspan="2" | kk
| ši || šin || šib || šinib || šek || šinak || šiyeš || šineš || šiyat || šinat || šiyux || šinux
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| n̮ + k
| ša || šan || šeb || šanib || šak || šanak || šaheš || šaneš || šahat || šanat || šahux || šanux
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
| k + g
!<small>masculine</small>
| rowspan="2" | gg
| ḳi || ḳin || ḳib || ḳinib || ḳek || ḳinak || ḳiyeš || ḳineš || ḳiyat || ḳinat || ḳiyux || ḳinux
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| n̮ + g
| ḳa || ḳan || ḳeb || ḳanib || ḳak || ḳanak || ḳaheš || ḳaneš || ḳahat || ḳanat || ḳahux || ḳanux
|-
|-
|}
|}
|}


====Modal Pronouns====
===Asymmetrical Assimilation===
{|
{|
|  
|
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"  
|+Personal Pronouns - Modal - Nominative
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Directive || colspan=2 | Subjunctive || colspan=2 | Commissive
|-
|-
! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
! Components
! Result
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|1st
| p + f
!<small>inclusive</small>
| rowspan="3" | ff
| rowspan=2|ʾamoñu || ḳñamoñu || rowspan=2| ʾamaśi || ḳñamaśi || rowspan=2| ʾammər || ḳñammər
|-
|-
!<small>exclusive</small>
| b + f
| šñamoñu || šñamaśi || šñammər
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
| m + f
!<small>masculine</small>
| šuñwi || šuñwin || šaśeyi || šaśeyin || ššəri || ššərin
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
|}
| šuñwa || šuñwan || šaśeya || šaśeyan || ššəra || ššəran
|
|
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|3rd
! Components
!<small>masculine</small>
! Result
| ḳuñwi || ḳuñwin || ḳaśeyi || ḳaśeyin || ḳḳəri || ḳḳərin
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| t + s
| ḳuñwa || ḳuñwan || ḳaśeya || ḳaśeyan || ḳḳəra || ḳḳəran
| rowspan="3" | ss
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Personal Pronouns - Modal - Genitive
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Directive || colspan=2 | Subjunctive || colspan=2 | Commissive
|-
|-
! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
| d + s
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|1st
| n + s
!<small>inclusive</small>
| rowspan=2|šaduñok || ḳñamoñok || rowspan=2| šadiśeyak || ḳñamaśeyak || rowspan=2| šaddərak || ḳñammərak
|-
|-
!<small>exclusive</small>
| šñamoñok || šñamaśeyak || šñammərak
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
| t + z
!<small>masculine</small>
| rowspan="3" | zz
| šuñwek || šuñwinak || šaśeyek || šaśeyinak || ššərek || ššərinak
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| d + z
| šuñwak || šuñwanak || šaśeyak || šaśeyanak || ššərak || ššəranak
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|3rd
| n + z
!<small>masculine</small>
| ḳuñwek || ḳuñwinak || ḳaśeyek || ḳaśeyinak || ḳḳərek || ḳḳərinak
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ḳuñwak || ḳuñwanak || ḳaśeyak || ḳaśeyanak || ḳḳərak || ḳḳəranak
|}
|}
|}
|
 
|
====Demonstrative Pronouns====
|
There are three kinds demonstrative pronouns for three kinds of deixis: proximal, medial, and distal. The proximal indicates an object near the speaker, the medial indicates an object near the addressee, and the distal indicates and object away from both the speaker and the addressee. Demonstrative pronouns always mark their referent as definite.
|
 
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"
|+Demonstrative Pronouns - Indicative
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive || colspan=2 | Allative || colspan=2 | Ablative || colspan=2 | Instrumental
|-
|-
! colspan=2|Deixis ||  || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
! Components
! Result
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|Proximal
| t + ś
!<small>masculine</small>
| rowspan="3" | śś
| ṣəhi || ṣəhin ||ṣəhib || ṣəhinib || ṣəhek || ṣəhinak || ṣəhiyeš || ṣəhineš || ṣəhiyat || ṣəhinat || ṣəhiyux || ṣəhinux
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| d + ś
| ṣəha || ṣəhan ||ṣəheb || ṣəhanib || ṣəhak || ṣəhanak || ṣəhaheš || ṣəhaneš || ṣəhahat || ṣəhanat || ṣəhahux || ṣəhanux
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|Medial
| n + ś
!<small>masculine</small>
| ʾani || ʾanin || ʾanib || ʾaninib || ʾanek || ʾaninak || ʾaniyeš || ʾanineš || ʾaniyat || ʾaninat || ʾaniyux || ʾaninux
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| t + ź
| ʾana || ʾanan || ʾaneb || ʾananib || ʾanak || ʾananak || ʾanaheš || ʾananeš || ʾanahat || ʾananat || ʾanahux || ʾananux
| rowspan="3" | źź
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|Distal
| d + ź
!<small>masculine</small>
| mayi || mayin || mayib || mayinib || mayek || mayinak || mayiyeš || mayineš || mayiyat || mayinat || mayiyux || mayinux
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| n + ź
| maya || mayan || mayeb || mayanib || mayak || mayanak || mayaheš || mayaneš || mayahat || mayanat || mayahux || mayanux
|-
|-
|}
|}
 
|
{|
|
|  
|
{| class="wikitable"
|
|+Demonstrative Pronouns - Modal - Nominative
{| class="wikitable"  
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Directive || colspan=2 | Subjunctive || colspan=2 | Commissive
|-
|-
! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
! Components
! Result
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|Proximal
| k + ḫ
!<small>masculine</small>
| rowspan="3" | ḫḫ
| ṣəhuñwi || ṣəhuñwin || ṣəhaśeyi || ṣəhaśeyin || ṣəhhəri || ṣəhhərin
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| g + ḫ
| ṣəhuñwa || ṣəhuñwan || ṣəhaśeya || ṣəhaśeyan || ṣəhhəra || ṣəhhəran
|-
|-
!  rowspan=2|Medial
| n̮ + ḫ
!<small>masculine</small>
| ʾanuñwi || ʾanuñwin || ʾanaśeyi || ʾanaśeyin || ʾannəri || ʾannərin
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ʾanuñwa || ʾanuñwan || ʾanaśeya || ʾanaśeyan || ʾannəra || ʾannəran
|-
! rowspan=2|Distal
!<small>masculine</small>
| mayuñwi || mayuñwin || mayaśeyi || mayaśeyin || mayyəri || mayyərin
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| mayuñwa || mayuñwan || mayaśeya || mayaśeyan || mayyəra || mayyəran
|}
|}
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
 
|+Personal Pronouns - Modal - Genitive
===Syllable Structure and Prosody===
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Directive || colspan=2 | Subjunctive || colspan=2 | Commissive
The basic syllable structure is maximally (C)V(V)(C) whereby any syllable can begin with any consonant except for /ʔ/ and any syllable can end with any consonant except for /ʔ j w/. Vrkhazhian strongly dislikes consonant clusters in the onset or coda of a syllable and typically inserts vowels to break the offending clusters. The epenthetic vowels typically mirror the adjacent vowel.
|-
 
! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
Stress in Vrkhazhian is based on syllable weight, of which there are three degrees: light (V, CV); heavy (CVC, CV̄, CV̂), and superheavy (CV̄C, CV̂C).
|-
 
! rowspan=2|1st
==Grammar==
!<small>masculine</small>
===Morphology===
| ṣəhuñwek || ṣəhuñwinak || ṣəhaśeyek || ṣəhaśeyinak || ṣəhhərek || ṣəhhərinak
====Overview====
Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting language, and morphologically, it is a triconsonatal root language: a kind of non-concatenative morphology whereby its roots consist of an abstract set of consonants which a pattern of vowels called transfixes are placed between. Most of these roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two-letter (biliteral) and four-letter (quadriliteral) roots. Very rare, however, are five-letter (pentaliteral) roots, all of which are entirely nouns.
 
====Nominal morphology====
{{main|Nouns in Vrkhazhian}}
 
Vrkhazhian nouns are called '''ğanūm''' (singular '''ğanum'''). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are four cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. When referring to humans, deities, and certain animals, masculine refers to beings and animals of the male sex as well as beings that identify with the male gender while feminine refers to beings and animals of the female sex as well as beings that identify with the female gender. When referring to non-humans, masculine refers to wild or dangerous animals (e.g. '''sammali''' "crocodile") or inanimate non-living things (e.g. '''adgi''' "sand") while feminine refers to domesticated or safe animals (e.g. '''ḫusu''' "horse") or more animate non-living things (e.g. '''masû''' "sea").
 
====Verbal morphology====
{{main|Verbs in Vrkhazhian}}
 
Vrkhazhian verbs are called '''narībūm''' (singular '''narībum'''). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root, though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active and passive). There are only two tenses (future and non-future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. Additionally, there are also two moods (indicative and subjunctive) although the indicative is unmarked. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix '''-am'''.
 
When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb '''p-r-ḫ''' (to say, to speak). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the first person singular realis, it is called '''paruḫna''' because that is the first person singular realis form of the verb.
 
====Adjectival morphology====
Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender, case, and number in agreement with the noun they modify.
 
Most adjectives are derived from verbs and take the form C₁aC₂C₂aC₃. Below is an example adjective derived from the verb '''s-g-l''' (to be old) with the meaning of "old":
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ s-g-l (to be old)
! rowspan=2| || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
! Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
| ṣəhuñwak || ṣəhuñwanak || ṣəhaśeyak || ṣəhaśeyanak || ṣəhərak || ṣəhəranak
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|2nd
! Masculine
!<small>masculine</small>
| ''saggal-im'' || ''saggal-īm''|| ''saggal-is'' || ''saggal-īs'' || ''saggal-in'' || ''saggal-īn''
| ʾanuñwek || ʾanuñwinak || ʾanaśeyek || ʾanaśeyinak || ʾannərek || ʾannərinak
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
! Feminine
| ʾanuñwak || ʾanuñwanak || ʾanaśeyak || ʾanaśeyanak || ʾannnərak || ʾannəranak
| ''saggal-um'' || ''saggal-ūm'' || ''saggal-us'' || ''saggal-ūs'' || ''saggal-un'' || ''saggal-ūn''
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|3rd
! Neuter
!<small>masculine</small>
| ''saggal-as'' || ''saggal-ās'' || ''saggal-as'' || ''saggal-ās'' || ''saggal-aḫ'' || ''saggal-āḫ''
| mayuñwek || mayuñwinak || mayaśeyek || mayaśeyinak || mayyərek || mayyərinak
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| mayuñwak || mayuñwanak || mayaśeyak || mayaśeyanak || mayyərak || mayyəranak
|}
|}
|}


====Interrogative Pronouns====
=====Demonstrative Adjectives=====
Vrkhazhian possesses a complex set of interrrogative pronouns:
Like English, Vrkhazhian makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these' known as "proximal") and far ('that, those' known as "distal") demonstrative expressions. Besides number, as in English, Vrkhazhian also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender as well as case.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Interrogative Pronouns
|+Proximal Demonstrative ("this", "these")
! colspan=2 | Interrogative
! colspan=2 | Relativizer
|-
|-
!English
! style="width: 6em;" rowspan="2" |
!Vrkhazhian
! colspan="2" | Feminine
!English
! colspan="2" | Masculine
!Vrkhazhian
! colspan="2" | Neuter
! colspan="2" | Inanimate
|-
|-
| who? || ''x̣anni ʾilma?'' || who || ''ʾalwam bi''
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
|-
|-
| what? || ''x̣anni maʾlima?'' || what || ''maʾlim bi''
! Nominative
| ''aḫḫ-um''
| ''aḫḫ-ūwa''
| ''aḫḫ-im''
| ''aḫḫ-īya''
| ''aḫḫ-am''
| ''aḫḫ-āya''
| rowspan="2" | ''aḫḫ-as''
| rowspan="2" | ''aḫḫ-āsa''
|-
|-
| how many? || ''x̣anni hawa?'' || how many || ''haw bi''
! Accusative
| ''aḫḫ-us''
| ''aḫḫ-ūsa''
| ''aḫḫ-is''
| ''aḫḫ-īsa''
| ''aḫḫ-as''
| ''aḫḫ-āsa''
|-
|-
| where? || ''x̣anni ʾəlmaya?'' || where || ''ʾəlmi bi''
! Ergative
|-
| ''aḫḫ-un''
| when? || ''x̣anni saǧa?'' || when || ''sax bi''
| ''aḫḫ-ūna''
|-
| ''aḫḫ-in''
| why/how? || ''x̣anni ʾəllumawe?'' || why/how || ''ʾəllumu bi''
| ''aḫḫ-īna''
| ''aḫḫ-an''
| ''aḫḫ-āna''
| ''aḫḫ-an''
| ''aḫḫ-āna''
|-
|-
! Genitive
| ''aḫḫ-uḫ''
| ''aḫḫ-ūwa''
| ''aḫḫ-iḫ''
| ''aḫḫ-īya''
| ''aḫḫ-aḫ''
| ''aḫḫ-āya''
| ''aḫḫ-aḫ''
| ''aḫḫ-āya''
|-
|}
|}


===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩.
|+Distal Demonstrative ("that", "those")
The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.   
|-
 
! style="width: 6em;" rowspan="2" |  
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Feminine
|+ Numerals
! colspan="2" | Masculine
! Numbers
! colspan="2" | Neuter
! Cardinal
! colspan="2" | Inanimate
(masc.)
! Cardinal
(fem.)
! Ordinal
(masc.)
! Ordinal
(fem.)
|-
! 1
| ''tibsi'' || ''tibsa'' || ''ʾayuni'' || ''ʾayuna''
|-
! 2
| ''susri'' || ''susra'' || ''hessori'' || ''hessora''
|-
! 3
| ''limni'' || ''limna'' || ''hermoni'' || ''hermona''
|-
! 4
| ''zařzi'' || ''zařza'' || ''hezřozi'' || ''hezřoza''
|-
! 5
| ''yurpi'' || ''yurpa'' || ''heylopi'' || ''heylopa''
|-
! 6
| ''mastali'' || ''mastala'' || ''hemostali'' || ''hemostala''
|-
! 7
| ''ʾařṭami'' || ''ʾařṭama'' || ''heřṭomi'' || ''heřṭoma''
|-
! 8
| ''šervi'' || ''šerva'' || ''hešlovi'' || ''hešlova''
|-
! 9
| ''zaḡgi'' || ''zaḡga'' || ''hezḡobi'' || ''hezḡoba''
|-
! X (10)
| ''yaqmi'' || ''yaqma'' || ''heyqomi'' || ''heyqoma''
|-
! E (11)
| ''ḵteli'' || ''ḵtela'' || ''heḵtoli'' || ''heḵtola''
|-
! 10 (12)
| ''seẕki'' || ''seẕka'' || ''hesẕoki'' || ''hesẕoka''
|-
|}
 
===Syntax===
{{main|Syntax in Vrkhazhian}}
====Nominal phrases====
Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. All adjectives except colours follow the noun. An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ''rVakyam Vərḵažaw, ʾIḵmeki ʾArašhijun I, kay tuṗtus ḳek numḵuḵ.'' "Ihmeki Arashjung, the Emperor of Vrkhazh, who united his people" which is analyzed in the following table:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!Word
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
!Meaning
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
!Analysis
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
!Part of the nominal phrase
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
|-
|-
| ''rVakyam'' || emperor of || nominative construct state || rowspan='2' valign='middle' | Apposition
! Nominative
| ''idd-um''
| ''idd-ūwa''
| ''idd-im''
| ''idd-īya''
| ''idd-am''
| ''idd-āya''
| rowspan="2" | ''idd-as''
| rowspan="2" | ''idd-āsa''
|-
|-
| ''Vərḵažaw'' || Vrkhazh || genitive feminine singular
! Accusative
| ''idd-us''
| ''idd-ūsa''
| ''idd-is''
| ''idd-īsa''
| ''idd-as''
| ''idd-āsa''
|-
|-
| ''ʾIḵmeki ʾArašhijun I'' || Ikhmeki Arashijun the First || masculine singular || Proper Noun (subject)
! Ergative
| ''idd-un''
| ''idd-ūna''
| ''idd-in''
| ''idd-īna''
| ''idd-an''
| ''idd-āna''
| ''idd-an''
| ''idd-āna''
|-
|-
| ''kay'' || who || nominative masculine singular || rowspan='4' valign='middle' | Relative clause
! Genitive
| ''idd-uḫ''
| ''idd-ūwa''
| ''idd-iḫ''
| ''idd-īya''
| ''idd-aḫ''
| ''idd-āya''
| ''idd-aḫ''
| ''idd-āya''
|-
|}
 
===Pronouns===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Imperial Vrkhazhian Pronouns
|-
|-
| ''tuṗtus'' || people || accusative feminine singular
! rowspan="3" |  
! colspan="8" | Independent
! colspan="2" | Bound
|-
|-
| ''ḳek'' || his || third person genitive masculine singular
! colspan="4" | Nominative
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Accusative
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Ergative
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Possessive
|-
|-
| ''numḵuḵ'' || united || active past singular
! colspan="2" | Affirmative
! colspan="2" | Negative
|-
|-
|}
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Person
 
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
====Sentence syntax====
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Oblique (VSX). Compare an active sentence:
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
 
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
:'''ʾUlden perje t-ʾildan ʾaldəm.'''
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
|-
|-
| Align="center" | ''ʾUlden'' || Align="center" | ''perje'' || Align="center" | ''t-ʾildan'' || Align="center" | ''ʾaldəm''  
! 1st
| ''āni''
| ''āti''
| ''tunni''
| ''tutti''
| ''nêsi''
| ''têsi''
| ''nêni''
| ''têni''
| ''-ni''
| ''-ti''
|-
|-
| soldier-NOM.MASC.PL || Align="center" | all-MASC || Align="center" | ACC-civilian-FEM.PL || Align="center" | guard\ACT.PRES-PL
! 2nd
|}
| ''āma''
:"All soldiers guard civilians."
| ''āman''
 
| ''tumma''
vs. a passive sentence:
| ''tumman''
 
| ''mêsi''
:'''Nikašməm zHaqla makšimən kafaw maśšəya.'''
| ''mināsi''
{| class="wikitable"
| ''mêni''
| ''mināni''
| ''-mi''
| ''-min''
|-
|-
| Align="center" | ''Nikašməm'' || Align="center" | ''rmakšimən'' || Align="center" | ''rkafaw rmaśšəya'' || Align="center" | ''zuHaqla''
! 3rd
| ''āsa''
| ''āsan''
| ''tussa''
| ''tussan''
| ''kêsi''
| ''kināsi''
| ''kêni''
| ''kināni''
| ''-ki''
| ''-kin''
|-
|-
| PASS.PST-build\PASS-PL || Align="center" | DEF-golem-NOM.FEM.PL || Align="center" | DEF-mercury-FEM.PL || Align="center" | Hiqala-ABL.FEM.SG
|}
|}
:"The mercury golems were built by Hiqala"


The verb root '''ʾ-l-d''' (to guard), in the first example, is conjugated for active past singular in the active sentence agreeing in number with the subject "soldiers", while the verb root '''k-š-m''' (to build [physical]) in the second example is conjugated in the passive past plural, agreeing in number with the subject "the mercury golems".


==Writing System==
The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵva Yatvṛḵažaẏka [axβa jatβɹ̩xaʝæe̯ka]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 33 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 6 vowel diacritics.
The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.


===History===
=====Interrogative and Relative Pronouns=====
The script has been in use for at least 950 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The script is a descendant of the Proto-Vrkhazhian logographic script.
Vrkhazhian possesses a simple set of interrrogative pronouns that also serve as relative pronouns:


===Letter names===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
====Standard letters====
|+Imperial Vrkhazhian Interrogative Adjectives
The table below lists the 34 letters of the Akhva that are shared by both Uzerian and Mukhebic:
|-
{|
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
|  
! colspan="2" | Feminine
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
! colspan="2" | Masculine
|+ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
! colspan="2" | Neuter
! colspan="2" | Inanimate
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
|-
|-
| [[File:Alakh.PNG|30px|ʾAlaḵ]] || ʾAlaḵa || wind, breath || '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
|-
|-
| [[File:Khav.PNG|30px|Ḵava]] || Ḵava || human || '''ḵ''' [x]
! style="width: 7em;" rowspan="4" | "Who / What"
! style="width: 6em;" | Nominative
| ''ḫamt-um''
| ''ḫamt-ūwa''
| ''ḫamt-im''
| ''ḫamt-īya''
| ''ḫamt-am''
| ''ḫamt-āya''
| rowspan="2" | ''ḫamt-as''
| rowspan="2" | ''ḫamt-āsa''
|-
|-
| [[File:Vav2.PNG|30px|Vava]] || Vawa || cane || '''v''' [β]
! Accusative
| ''ḫamt-us''
| ''ḫamt-ūsa''
| ''ḫamt-is''
| ''ḫamt-īsa''
| ''ḫamt-as''
| ''ḫamt-āsa''
|-
|-
| [[File:Hith.PNG|30px|Hita]] || Hita || lock || '''h''' [h]
! Ergative
| ''ḫamt-un''
| ''ḫamt-ūna''
| ''ḫamt-in''
| ''ḫamt-īna''
| ''ḫamt-an''
| ''ḫamt-āna''
| ''ḫamt-an''
| ''ḫamt-āna''
|-
|-
| [[File:Dat.PNG|30px|Data]] || Data || skull || '''d''' [d]
! Genitive
| ''ḫamt-uḫ''
| ''ḫamt-ūwa''
| ''ḫamt-iḫ''
| ''ḫamt-īya''
| ''ḫamt-aḫ''
| ''ḫamt-āya''
| ''ḫamt-aḫ''
| ''ḫamt-āya''
|-
|-
| [[File:Tsim.PNG|30px|Ẕima]] || Ẕima || fruit, blood || '''ẕ''' [t͡s]
! colspan="10" |  
|-
|-
| [[File:Bal.PNG|30px|Bala]] || Bala || path || '''b''' [b]
! rowspan="4" | "How Many"
! Nominative
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Sum.PNG|30px|Suma]] || Suma || tunnel || '''s''' [s]
! Accusative
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Zhat.PNG|30px|Žati]] || Žati || helmet || '''ž''' [ʝ]
! Ergative
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Tham.PNG|30px|Ṭama]] || Ṭama || horn, curve || '''ṭ''' [θ]
! Genitive
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Yav.PNG|30px|Yava]] || Yava || scythe || '''y''' [j]
|}
|}
|
 
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
===Numerals===
|+ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩.
 
Numerals behave like noun/pronouns.
 
The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.   
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Numbers
|-
! Glyph
! Numeral
! Cardinal
! Ordinal
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
! [[File:Ayn.PNG|30px|Tibsa]]
! 1
| ''tibsas''
| ''tabbas-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Kah.PNG|30px|Kafa]] || Kafa || water || '''k''' [k]
! [[File:Nim.PNG|30px|Susra]]
! 2
| ''śiṭṭas''
| ''śaddaṭ-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Ge.PNG|30px|Geba]] || Geba || wing || '''g''' [g]
!
! 3
| ''miḫlas''
| ''maḫḫal-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Lam.PNG|30px|Lama]] || Lama || hand || '''l''' [l]
!
! 4
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Ma'.PNG|30px|Maʾa]] || Maʾa || bowl, cup || '''m''' [m]
!
! 5
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Nesh.PNG|30px|Neši]] || Neši || peace || '''n''' [n]
!
! 6
| ''taftas''
| ''taffat-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Ghaym.PNG|30px|Ḡaẏma]] || Ḡaẏma || name || '''ḡ''' [ɣ]
!
! 7
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Phas.PNG|30px|Ṗasi]] || Ṗasi || poison || '''ṗ''' [ɸ~ʍ̝~w̝]
!
! 8
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Pak.PNG|30px|Paka]] || Paka || head || '''p''' [p]
!
! 9
| ''nuḫras''
| ''naḫḫar-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Jim.PNG|30px|Jima]] || Jima || pillar || '''j''' [ɟ]
!
! X
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Ru.PNG|30px|Ruḡi]] || Ruḡi || snake || '''r''' [ɹ]
!
! E
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Fash.PNG|30px|Faši]] || Faši || vulture || '''f''' [ɸ]
!
! 10
| ''ḫarṭas''
| ''ḫarraṭ-''
|}
|}
|
 
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
===Syntax===
|+ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
{{main|Syntax in Vrkhazhian}}
====Nominal phrases====
Noun phrases have the following overall order: (numeral) noun (genitive noun) (adjective/relative clause) (demonstratives)
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
| Align="center" | ''śimās'' || Align="center" | ''aḫās''
|-
|-
| [[File:Shim.PNG|30px|Šima]] || Šima || house || '''š''' [ç]
| house-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Waj.PNG|30px|Wadi]] || Wadi || shield || '''w''' [w]
| Align="center" colspan='2'| this house
|-
|-
| [[File:Tlon.PNG|30px|Ćona]] || Ćona || fish || '''ć''' [t͡ɬ]
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[File:Tal.PNG|30px|Tali]] || Tali || gate || '''t''' [t]
| Align="center" | ''śimās'' || Align="center" | ''mannabās'' || Align="center" | ''aḫās''
|-
|-
| [[File:Rhash.PNG|30px|Ṟaša]] || Ṟaša || shoulder || '''ṟ''' [ʀ]
| house-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span> || beautiful-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Chi.PNG|30px|Čita]] || Čita || hook || '''č''' [c]
| Align="center" colspan='3'| these beautiful houses
|-
|-
| [[File:Zab.PNG|30px|Zaba]] || Zaba || branch || '''z''' [z]
|}
Numerals behave like nouns, thus when they are used to quantify another noun they are placed in the construct state. In turn, determiners and adjectives agree in gender and number with the numeral rather than the possessing noun.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[File:Rhat.PNG|30px|Řata]] || Řata || fear, tail || '''ř''' [r]
| Align="center" | ''tufta'' || Align="center" | ''śimāḫ'' || Align="center" | ''aḫas''
|-
|-
| [[File:Lham.PNG|30px|Śama]] || Śama || tree || '''ś''' [ɬ]
| six-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || house-<span class="smallcaps">gen.inan.pl</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Qhak.PNG|30px|Ḥaka]] || Ḥaka || roof || '''ḥ''' [χ]
| Align="center" colspan='3'| these six houses
|-
|-
| [[File:Qar.PNG|30px|Qaẇta]] || Qaẇta || sheep || '''q''' [q]
|}
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
| Align="center" | ''tufta'' || Align="center" | ''śimāḫ'' || Align="center" | ''mannabas'' || Align="center" | ''aḫas''
|-
|-
| [[File:Nhod.PNG|30px|Ṉoda]] || Ṉoda || ear || '''ṉ''' [ɴ]
| six-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || house-<span class="smallcaps">gen.inan.pl</span> || beautiful-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.fem.sg</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>
|}
|}
 
====Mukhebic-only letters====
The table below lists the letters that are only found in Mukhebic Vrkhazhian:
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵvah Yat-Vṛḵažaẏkah
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
| Align="center" colspan='4'| these six beautiful houses
|-
|-
| [[File:Alakh2.PNG|30px|ʾAlaḵa Miḵbaẏka]] || ʾAlaḵa Miḵbaẏka || Mukhebic Alakh || '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
|-
| [[File:Kqun.PNG|30px|Ḳuna]] || Ḳuna || sky || '''ḳ''' [kʼ]
|-
| [[File:Qqus.PNG|30px|Q̇usa]] || Q̇usa || hide || '''q̇''' [kʼ]
|-
| [[File:Kqun.PNG|30px|Ñiṟa]] || Ñiṟa || root || '''ñ''' [ɲ]
|}
|}
 
Relative clauses are made by infixing '''-ēs-''' to the verb subject suffix of the relative clause:
====Vowel diacritics====
{| class="wikitable"
The Akhuva is an abjad, thus vowels are not represented in most texts. However, vowel diacritics may be used to aid learners in reading the text and to reduce ambiguities.
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Mambinud Yat-Vṛḵažaẏkud
|-
|-
! Letter
| Align="center" | ''ḳebbis'' || Align="center" | ''assalmabakki'' || Align="center" | ''māˀaḫtēsi''
! Name
! Meaning
! Phoneme
|-
|-
| [[File:Ah.PNG|30px|Maʾlibi]]
| king-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.sg</span> || people\<span class="smallcaps">cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut-</span>put_together<span class="smallcaps">-3ms.rel</span>
| Maʾlibi
| exposed
| '''a''' [a]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Ee.PNG|30px|Mařkiki]]
| Align="center" colspan='3'| a king who united his people
| Mařkiki
| fallen
|'''e''' [e̞]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Eh.PNG|30px|Yata]]
|}
| Yata
Relative clauses can also be made by the use of the interrogative pronoun '''arr-''' "(the one) who", agreeing in number and gender with the main clause's referent.
| ground
{| class="wikitable"
|'''i''' [i]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Oh.PNG|30px|Ḵoṭa]]
| Align="center" | ''assalmabas'' || Align="center" | ''arras'' || Align="center" | ''ḳebbis'' || Align="center" | ''māˀaḫti''
| Ḵoṭa
| circle
| '''o''' [o̞]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Oo.PNG|30px|Muḵepa]]
| king-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.sg</span> || who-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>|| people\<span class="smallcaps">cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut-</span>put_together<span class="smallcaps">-3ms</span>
| Ṃḵepa
| emptiness
| '''ə''' [ə]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Uu.PNG|30px|Ḥomli]]
| Align="center" colspan='4'| the people who the king united
| Ḥomli
| throne
| '''u''' [u]
 
|}
 
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+???
|-
|-
! Letter
! Name
! Phoneme
|-
| [[File:Yay.PNG|30px|Yava Ṛwada]]
| Yava Ṛwada
| '''ẏ''' [e̯]
|-
| [[File:Waw.PNG|30px|Wadi Ṛwadi]]
| Wadi Ṛwadi
| '''ẇ''' [o̯]
|}
|}


====Numerals====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Ḥalkud Yat-Vṛḵažaẏku
|-
|-
! Numeral
| Align="center" | ''ummuḫdas'' || Align="center" | ''arras'' || Align="center" | ''ku'' || Align="center" | ''rabdāmūs'' || Align="center" | ''taḳūstan''
! Number
! Name
|-
|-
| [[File:Sxan.PNG|30px|Šemta]]
| palace-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || who-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || at || guards-<span class="smallcaps">nom.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">futi</span>-lie_down-<span class="smallcaps">3fp</span>
| 0
| Šemta ("none")
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Ayn.PNG|30px|Tibsa]]
| Align="center" colspan='5'| the palace where guards might reside
| 1
| Tibsa
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Nim.PNG|30px|Susra]]
|}
| 2
| Susra
 
|-
| [[File:Daj.PNG|30px|Limn-]]
| 3
| Limna


====Sentence syntax====
The basic word order of Vrkhazhian is SOV. Vrkhazhian has two primary voices, active and applicative:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[File:Hat.PNG|30px|Zařza]]
| Align="center" | ''aldāmīs''  || Align="center" | ''ilgūn'' || Align="center" | ''amtan''
| 4
| Zařza
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Azha.PNG|30px|Yurpa]]
| warrior-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.pl</span> || fish-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut</span>-eat\<span class="smallcaps">act</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span>
| 5
| Yurpa
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Apeth.PNG|30px|Mastala]]
| Align="center" colspan='3' | The warriors ate some fish
| 6
|}
| Mastala


{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[File:Aram.PNG|30px|ʾAřṭama]]
| Align="center" | ''aldāmīs'' || Align="center" | ''ḫagrākan'' || Align="center" | ''ilgūn'' || Align="center" | ''āˀamtan''
| 7
| ʾAřṭama
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Shab.PNG|30px|Šerva]]
| warrior-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.pl</span> || dog-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span> || fish-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut</span>-eat\<span class="smallcaps">appl</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span>
| 8
| Šerva
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Adik.PNG|30px|Zaḡga]]
| Align="center" colspan='4' | The warriors fed their dogs some fish
| 9
|}
| Zaḡga


|-
| [[File:Yam.PNG|30px|Yaqma]]
| 10/X
| Yaqma


|-
The verb root '''ñ-m''' (to eat), in the first example, is conjugated for active nonfuture masculine plural in the active sentence agreeing in number and gender with the subject "warriors", while the same verb root in the second example is conjugated in the passive nonfuture feminine plural, agreeing in number and gender with the subject "fish".
| [[File:Ijith.PNG|30px|Ḵtela]]
| 11/E
| Ḵtela
 
|}


==Writing System==
==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
==Example text==
==Example text==
 
[[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A_priori_conlangs]] [[Category:Vrkhazh]]
[[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A_priori_conlangs]] [[Category:Descendants_of_Takshian]] [[Category:Vrkhazh]]
</big>

Latest revision as of 16:21, 1 November 2024

Vrkhazhian (Śād Warḫāsaḫ "Mouth of Vrkhazh") is a language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhians who live in Warḫāsam.



VrkhazhianFlagSRLT.png
Vrkhazhian
Śād Warḫāsaḫ, Warḫāsāli
Pronounced: [ˈɬɑːd wɑr.ˈxɑː.sɑx], [wɑr.xɑː.ˈsɑː.li]
Spoken: Vrkhazh (Warḫāsam)
Writing system: Añmānas
Genealogy: Proto-Ch'ahdic
Proto-A
Proto-AA
Proto-AAA
Old Vrkhazhian
Imperial Vrkh.
Common Vrkh.
Typology
Morphological type: agglutinative, triconsonantal root-based morphology
Morphosyntactic alignment: nominative-accusative
Basic word order: Free word order, but typically verb-initial
Credits
Creator: Malcolm G. Holborne


History

Registers

Vrkhazhian is divided into two primary registers:

  • Imperial Vrkhazhian (Ḳabbāˀas "The Royal [Speech]") is the written variety of Vrkhazhian based upon a dialect of Old Vrkhazhian spoken by the founder of the Empire, Ezu-Nardikh the Great, and his supporters.
  • Common Vrkhazhian (Lumbāˀas "The Common [Speech]") is the spoken variety based around the dialect of the capital city of Uzur.

Phonology

Consonants

The table below shows the 25 consonant phonemes found in Vrkhazhian. Letters in angle brackets indicate where the romanization of the phoneme differs from its IPA representation.

Bilabial Coronal Velar Glottal
Central Lateral
Nasal m n ŋ ⟨n̮⟩
Stop Voiceless p t k ʔ ⟨ˀ⟩
Ejective pʼ ⟨ṗ⟩ tʼ ⟨ṭ⟩ kʼ ⟨ḳ⟩
Voiced b d g
Fricative Voiceless f s ɬ ⟨ś⟩ x ⟨ḫ⟩
Ejective sʼ ⟨ṣ⟩ ɬʼ ⟨ṣ́⟩
Voiced z ɮ ⟨ź⟩
Liquid r l
Semivowel w j ⟨y⟩

All consonants except for /j w ʔ/ can be geminated (pronounced twice as long) which is indicated in writing by simply doubling the letter.

Vowels

Vrkhazhian possesses the following monophthongs:

Front Back
Close i iː u uː
Open ɛ ɛː ɑ ɑː

The short vowels /ɛ ɑ i u/ are represented in writing as ⟨e a i u⟩ while the long vowels /ɛː ɑː iː uː/ are either represented with a macron ⟨ē, ā, ī, ū⟩ or a circumflex ⟨ê, â, î, û⟩. The usage of a circumflex in writing is to indicate vowel coalescence as a result of the contraction of the weak consonants /ʔ j w/.

Allophony

Plosives

  • The plosives /p b t d k g/ assimilate in voicing when they precede a plosive of the same place of articulation. An example of this allophony is demonstrated with the verb alad- "fight, oppose": under normal circumstances its stem is alad- such as in aladna "I fought, I opposed"; however, when, for example, the first person plural subject suffix -ta is added, it becomes alatta "we fought, we opposed"
  • The plosives /p b t d k g/ also assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede fricatives of the same place of articulation

Nasals

  • ???

Fricatives

  • the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede another fricative of the same place of articulation.
  • the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ become affricates word-initially.

Other

  • The velar consonants /ŋ k g x/ become partially-rounded [ŋ͗ k̹ g͗ x̹] or fully-rounded [ŋʷ kʷ gʷ xʷ] before back vowels.

Symmetrical Assimilation

Components Result
b + p pp
m + p
p + b bb
m + b
Components Result
d + t tt
n + t
t + d dd
n + d
Components Result
g + k kk
n̮ + k
k + g gg
n̮ + g

Asymmetrical Assimilation

Components Result
p + f ff
b + f
m + f
Components Result
t + s ss
d + s
n + s
t + z zz
d + z
n + z
Components Result
t + ś śś
d + ś
n + ś
t + ź źź
d + ź
n + ź
Components Result
k + ḫ ḫḫ
g + ḫ
n̮ + ḫ

Syllable Structure and Prosody

The basic syllable structure is maximally (C)V(V)(C) whereby any syllable can begin with any consonant except for /ʔ/ and any syllable can end with any consonant except for /ʔ j w/. Vrkhazhian strongly dislikes consonant clusters in the onset or coda of a syllable and typically inserts vowels to break the offending clusters. The epenthetic vowels typically mirror the adjacent vowel.

Stress in Vrkhazhian is based on syllable weight, of which there are three degrees: light (V, CV); heavy (CVC, CV̄, CV̂), and superheavy (CV̄C, CV̂C).

Grammar

Morphology

Overview

Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting language, and morphologically, it is a triconsonatal root language: a kind of non-concatenative morphology whereby its roots consist of an abstract set of consonants which a pattern of vowels called transfixes are placed between. Most of these roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two-letter (biliteral) and four-letter (quadriliteral) roots. Very rare, however, are five-letter (pentaliteral) roots, all of which are entirely nouns.

Nominal morphology

Main article: Nouns in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian nouns are called ğanūm (singular ğanum). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are four cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. When referring to humans, deities, and certain animals, masculine refers to beings and animals of the male sex as well as beings that identify with the male gender while feminine refers to beings and animals of the female sex as well as beings that identify with the female gender. When referring to non-humans, masculine refers to wild or dangerous animals (e.g. sammali "crocodile") or inanimate non-living things (e.g. adgi "sand") while feminine refers to domesticated or safe animals (e.g. ḫusu "horse") or more animate non-living things (e.g. masû "sea").

Verbal morphology

Main article: Verbs in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian verbs are called narībūm (singular narībum). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root, though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active and passive). There are only two tenses (future and non-future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. Additionally, there are also two moods (indicative and subjunctive) although the indicative is unmarked. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix -am.

When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb p-r-ḫ (to say, to speak). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the first person singular realis, it is called paruḫna because that is the first person singular realis form of the verb.

Adjectival morphology

Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender, case, and number in agreement with the noun they modify.

Most adjectives are derived from verbs and take the form C₁aC₂C₂aC₃. Below is an example adjective derived from the verb s-g-l (to be old) with the meaning of "old":

s-g-l (to be old)
Nominative Accusative Genitive
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Masculine saggal-im saggal-īm saggal-is saggal-īs saggal-in saggal-īn
Feminine saggal-um saggal-ūm saggal-us saggal-ūs saggal-un saggal-ūn
Neuter saggal-as saggal-ās saggal-as saggal-ās saggal-aḫ saggal-āḫ
Demonstrative Adjectives

Like English, Vrkhazhian makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these' known as "proximal") and far ('that, those' known as "distal") demonstrative expressions. Besides number, as in English, Vrkhazhian also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender as well as case.

Proximal Demonstrative ("this", "these")
Feminine Masculine Neuter Inanimate
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative aḫḫ-um aḫḫ-ūwa aḫḫ-im aḫḫ-īya aḫḫ-am aḫḫ-āya aḫḫ-as aḫḫ-āsa
Accusative aḫḫ-us aḫḫ-ūsa aḫḫ-is aḫḫ-īsa aḫḫ-as aḫḫ-āsa
Ergative aḫḫ-un aḫḫ-ūna aḫḫ-in aḫḫ-īna aḫḫ-an aḫḫ-āna aḫḫ-an aḫḫ-āna
Genitive aḫḫ-uḫ aḫḫ-ūwa aḫḫ-iḫ aḫḫ-īya aḫḫ-aḫ aḫḫ-āya aḫḫ-aḫ aḫḫ-āya
Distal Demonstrative ("that", "those")
Feminine Masculine Neuter Inanimate
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative idd-um idd-ūwa idd-im idd-īya idd-am idd-āya idd-as idd-āsa
Accusative idd-us idd-ūsa idd-is idd-īsa idd-as idd-āsa
Ergative idd-un idd-ūna idd-in idd-īna idd-an idd-āna idd-an idd-āna
Genitive idd-uḫ idd-ūwa idd-iḫ idd-īya idd-aḫ idd-āya idd-aḫ idd-āya

Pronouns

Imperial Vrkhazhian Pronouns
Independent Bound
Nominative Accusative Ergative Possessive
Affirmative Negative
Person Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st āni āti tunni tutti nêsi têsi nêni têni -ni -ti
2nd āma āman tumma tumman mêsi mināsi mêni mināni -mi -min
3rd āsa āsan tussa tussan kêsi kināsi kêni kināni -ki -kin


Interrogative and Relative Pronouns

Vrkhazhian possesses a simple set of interrrogative pronouns that also serve as relative pronouns:

Imperial Vrkhazhian Interrogative Adjectives
Feminine Masculine Neuter Inanimate
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
"Who / What" Nominative ḫamt-um ḫamt-ūwa ḫamt-im ḫamt-īya ḫamt-am ḫamt-āya ḫamt-as ḫamt-āsa
Accusative ḫamt-us ḫamt-ūsa ḫamt-is ḫamt-īsa ḫamt-as ḫamt-āsa
Ergative ḫamt-un ḫamt-ūna ḫamt-in ḫamt-īna ḫamt-an ḫamt-āna ḫamt-an ḫamt-āna
Genitive ḫamt-uḫ ḫamt-ūwa ḫamt-iḫ ḫamt-īya ḫamt-aḫ ḫamt-āya ḫamt-aḫ ḫamt-āya
"How Many" Nominative ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
Accusative ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
Ergative ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
Genitive ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

Numerals

Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩.

Numerals behave like noun/pronouns.

The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.

Numbers
Glyph Numeral Cardinal Ordinal
Tibsa 1 tibsas tabbas-
Susra 2 śiṭṭas śaddaṭ-
3 miḫlas maḫḫal-
4 ??? ???
5 ??? ???
6 taftas taffat-
7 ??? ???
8 ??? ???
9 nuḫras naḫḫar-
X ??? ???
E ??? ???
10 ḫarṭas ḫarraṭ-

Syntax

Main article: Syntax in Vrkhazhian

Nominal phrases

Noun phrases have the following overall order: (numeral) noun (genitive noun) (adjective/relative clause) (demonstratives)

śimās aḫās
house-nom/acc.inan.sg this-nom/acc.inan.sg
this house
śimās mannabās aḫās
house-nom/acc.inan.pl beautiful-nom/acc.inan.pl this-nom/acc.inan.pl
these beautiful houses

Numerals behave like nouns, thus when they are used to quantify another noun they are placed in the construct state. In turn, determiners and adjectives agree in gender and number with the numeral rather than the possessing noun.

tufta śimāḫ aḫas
six-nom/acc.inan.sg house-gen.inan.pl this-nom/acc.inan.sg
these six houses
tufta śimāḫ mannabas aḫas
six-nom/acc.inan.sg house-gen.inan.pl beautiful-nom/acc.fem.sg this-nom/acc.inan.sg
these six beautiful houses

Relative clauses are made by infixing -ēs- to the verb subject suffix of the relative clause:

ḳebbis assalmabakki māˀaḫtēsi
king-nom.masc.sg people\cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl nfut-put_together-3ms.rel
a king who united his people

Relative clauses can also be made by the use of the interrogative pronoun arr- "(the one) who", agreeing in number and gender with the main clause's referent.

assalmabas arras ḳebbis māˀaḫti
king-nom.masc.sg who-nom/acc.inan.sg people\cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl nfut-put_together-3ms
the people who the king united
ummuḫdas arras ku rabdāmūs taḳūstan
palace-nom/acc.inan.sg who-nom/acc.inan.sg at guards-nom.fem.pl futi-lie_down-3fp
the palace where guards might reside

Sentence syntax

The basic word order of Vrkhazhian is SOV. Vrkhazhian has two primary voices, active and applicative:

aldāmīs ilgūn amtan
warrior-nom.masc.pl fish-acc.fem.pl nfut-eat\act-3mp
The warriors ate some fish
aldāmīs ḫagrākan ilgūn āˀamtan
warrior-nom.masc.pl dog-acc.fem.pl-3mp fish-acc.fem.pl nfut-eat\appl-3mp
The warriors fed their dogs some fish


The verb root ñ-m (to eat), in the first example, is conjugated for active nonfuture masculine plural in the active sentence agreeing in number and gender with the subject "warriors", while the same verb root in the second example is conjugated in the passive nonfuture feminine plural, agreeing in number and gender with the subject "fish".

Writing System

Vocabulary

Example text

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