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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] | | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] | | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] | | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| * [[Kala/particles|particles]] | | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
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| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| =Introduction=
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| '''Kala''' is a personal [[wp:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]]), based on my aesthetic preferences, not attached to any [[wp:Worldbuilding|conworld or conculture]]. This language draws on [[wp:Natural_language|natlangs (natural language)]], other conlangs, and of course imagination. '''Kala''' was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on [[wp:Classical_Nahuatl|Classical Nahuatl]] while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of [[wp:Japanese_phonology#Phonotactics|Japanese]], and the presence of [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalized]] stops is influenced by [[wp:Bantu_languages|Bantu languages]]. '''Kala’s''' grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of '''Kala''' lexemes are derived from or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a [[wp:Substitution_cipher|cipherlang]] from my youth) and [[Qatama]] (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
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| == Characteristics ==
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| '''Kala''' has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]]. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best and most common example would be '''ina''' /iːˈna/ "''food; to eat''". '''Kala''' is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many '''Kala''' sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb); more so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
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| * '''muya ka''' - /muːja gaː/ - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
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| * '''ina''' - /iːna/ - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
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| * '''tamatse''' - /tamaːˌt͡ʃɛ/ - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
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| * '''ueha ka''' - /weːɦa kaː/ - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
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| * '''nyasak''' - /ɲaːʃak/ - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
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| Notice that none of the above contains any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable. There can be considerable divergence from what is grammatical, and what is acceptably idiomatic. The spectrum of formality and grammatical to idiomatic can be seen in the example below:
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| * '''na’etla muyaye''' – <small>1s-P.4s do-PST</small> – ''I did it.'' > [grammatical, formal]
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| * '''etla muyaye''' – <small>P.4s do-PST</small> – ''(I) did it. >> It was done.'' > [grammatical, formal, passive]
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| * '''na muyaye''' – <small>1s do-PST</small> – ''I did (it).'' > [grammatical, informal]
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| * '''muyaye''' – <small>do-PST</small> – ''(I) did (it).'' > [semi-grammatical, idiomatic]
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| * '''muyye''' – /muːɟɛ/ – <small>do-PST</small> – ''(I) did (it).'' > [ungrammatical, idiomatic]
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| == Borrowing ==
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| :: ''See also'': [[Kala/etymology|''Kala etymology'']]
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| '''Kala''' borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| * '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[wiktionary:pato#Noun_9|''pato'']]
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| * '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
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| * '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
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| * '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| * '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[wiktionary:橙#Chinese|''chéng'']]
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| * '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]
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| * '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| So, some phrases can contain words from multiple natlangs:
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| * '''ta ke inu uasiye ka'''
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| : <small>2s O drink take-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did you take the drink?''
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| * '''ta''' - Arabic [[wiktionary:أنت|''ʾanta'']]; '''ke''' - Chinese [[wiktionary:個#Definitions|''gè'']]; '''inu''' - Hawaiian [[wiktionary:inu#Hawaiian|''inu'']]; '''uasi''' - Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]; '''ka''' - Japanese [[wiktionary:か#Particle|''か'']]
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| =Phonology=
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| == Consonants ==
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
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| {|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
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| |+Consonants
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| !
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| !Labial
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| !colspan=2|Alveolar
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| !Palatal
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| !Velar
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| !Glottal
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| |-
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| ! Nasal
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| | m ('''m''')
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| |colspan=2|n ('''n''')
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| | ɲ ('''ny''')
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| |-
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| ! Plosive
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| | p~b ('''p''')
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| |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
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| | k~g ('''g''')
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| | ʔ (''' ' ''')
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| |-
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| ! Affricate
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| | ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
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| |-
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| ! Continuant
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| | s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
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| | h~ɦ ('''h''')
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| |-
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| ! Semivowel
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| |colspan=2|
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| | j ('''y''')
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| | w ('''u''')
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| |}
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| The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/.
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| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
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| * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
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| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
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| == Vowels ==
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Vowels
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| !
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| !'''Front'''
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| !'''Back'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Close'''
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| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Mid'''
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| |{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Open'''
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| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
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| |}
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| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
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| === Diphthongs ===
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| Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
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| == Phonotactics ==
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| '''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
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| * /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loanwords and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]):
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| :: '''lupunan''' = Lebanon
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| :: '''lupusu''' = [[wp:Lupus_(constellation)|Lupus]]
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| :: '''
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| === Syllables ===
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| Syllable structure in '''Kala''' is typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the endings –'''m''' (indicating general plural), -'''n''' (indicating adverbial or adjectival use), and –'''k''' (indicating negative mood). These endings all are word final. In detail a Kala syllable can be analyzed thusly: '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where ('''N''') indicates [[wp:Nasalization|nasalization]], and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate [[wp:Labialization|labialization]] and [[wp:Palatalization_(phonetics)|palatalization]] respectively.
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| === Syllable Chart ===
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| {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
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| |+the 136 basic Kala syllables
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| |-
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| !
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| ! a
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| ! e
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| ! i
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| ! o
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| ! u
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| ! ua
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| ! ue
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| ! ya
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| ! ye
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| ! yo
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| ! ai
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| ! ao
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| ! uai
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| ! yao
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| |-
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| ! p
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| | align="center"|''(m)pa''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pe''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pi''
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| | align="center"|''(m)po''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pu''
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| | align="center"|''pua''
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| | align="center"|''pue''
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| | align="center"|''pya''
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| | align="center"|''pye''
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| | align="center"|''pyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! t
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| | align="center"|''(n)ta''
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| | align="center"|''(n)te''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ti''
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| | align="center"|''(n)to''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! k
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| | align="center"|''(n)ka''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ke''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ki''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ko''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ku''
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| | align="center"|''kua''
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| | align="center"|''kue''
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| | align="center"|''kya''
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| | align="center"|''kye''
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| | align="center"|''kyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! m
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| | align="center"|''ma''
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| | align="center"|''me''
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| | align="center"|''mi''
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| | align="center"|''mo''
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| | align="center"|''mu''
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| | align="center"|''mua''
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| | align="center"|''mue''
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| | align="center"|''mya''
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| | align="center"|''mye''
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| | align="center"|''myo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! n
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| | align="center"|''na''
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| | align="center"|''ne''
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| | align="center"|''ni''
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| | align="center"|''no''
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| | align="center"|''nu''
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| | align="center"|''nua''
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| | align="center"|''nue''
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| | align="center"|''nya''
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| | align="center"|''nye''
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| | align="center"|''nyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! s
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| | align="center"|''sa''
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| | align="center"|''se''
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| | align="center"|''si''
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| | align="center"|''so''
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| | align="center"|''su''
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| | align="center"|''sua''
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| | align="center"|''sue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! h
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| | align="center"|''ha''
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| | align="center"|''he''
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| | align="center"|''hi''
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| | align="center"|''ho''
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| | align="center"|''hu''
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| | align="center"|''hua''
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| | align="center"|''hue''
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| | align="center"|''hya''
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| | align="center"|''hye''
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| | align="center"|''hyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! ts
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| | align="center"|''tsa''
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| | align="center"|''tse''
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| | align="center"|''tsi''
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| | align="center"|''tso''
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| | align="center"|''tsu''
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| | align="center"|''tsua''
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| | align="center"|''tsue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! tl
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| | align="center"|''tla''
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| | align="center"|''tle''
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| | align="center"|''tli''
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| | align="center"|''tlo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! l
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| | align="center"|''la''
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| | align="center"|''le''
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| | align="center"|''li''
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| | align="center"|''lo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! -
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| | align="center"|''a''
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| | align="center"|''e''
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| | align="center"|''i''
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| | align="center"|''o''
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| | align="center"|''u''
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| | align="center"|''ua''
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| | align="center"|''ue''
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| | align="center"|''ya''
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| | align="center"|''ye''
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| | align="center"|''yo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
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| |}
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| <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.</small>
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| === Collating Order ===
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| The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the '''Naua''' script.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
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| ! Consonants
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| | '''p'''
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| | '''t'''
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| | '''k'''
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| | '''m'''
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| | '''n'''
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| | '''s'''
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| | '''h'''
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| | '''ts'''
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| | '''tl'''
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| | '''l'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Vowels
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| | '''a'''
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| | '''e'''
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| | '''i'''
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| | '''o'''
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| | '''u'''
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| | '''ua'''
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| | '''ue'''
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| | '''ya'''
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| | '''ye'''
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| | '''yo'''
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| |-align=center
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| |}
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| Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]].
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| == Stress ==
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|
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| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
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| * '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ >> '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
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| * '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ >> '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
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| * '''kam''' - /kaːm/ >> '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
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|
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| =Morphology=
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| ==Nouns==
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| ===Pronouns===
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| ==Verbs==
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| ===Tense===
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| ===Aspect===
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| ===Mood===
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| =Derivational Morphology=
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| =Syntax=
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| ==Basic Sentences==
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| ==Complex Sentences==
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| ==Compound Sentences==
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| ==Subordinate Clauses==
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| ==Relative Clauses==
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| ==Sentences as Objects==
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| ==Copular Sentences==
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| ==Questions==
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| ==Comparison==
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| ==Indirect Objects==
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| =Semantic Fields and Pragmatics=
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| =Numbers=
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| =Writing System=
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| =Examples=
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| =Lexicon=
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| [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]] | | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
