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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] | | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] | | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] | | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| * [[Kala/particles|particles]] | | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
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| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| = Introduction =
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| = Orthography =
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| = Phonology =
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| = Morphology =
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| = Derivational morphology =
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| = Syntax =
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| Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles). The subject, if understood, can be omitted at the end of an utterance: '''pana''' ("''It is raining.''") '''pana!''' ("''Rain!''") An utterance can be anything from an interjection to a story.
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is: <tt>AGENT--PATIENT--VERB</tt> (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
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| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
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| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
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| The use of the object marker '''ke''' indicates the recipient of the action.
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| * <b>naka ke mita itsa</b>
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| : <small>woman O dog love</small>
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| : <i>The woman loves the dog.</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological adjectives and instead uses [[wp:Predicative_verb|predicative]] verbs.
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| * <b>ke tsaka taha</b>
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| : <small>O house be.big</small>
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| : <i>The big house / The house is big</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological adverbs, verbs modified with the adverbial ending '''-n''' tend to precede the verb phrase they modify.
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| * <b>tsumun nam yokone</b>
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| : <small>cautious-ADV 1pl swim-SUG</small>
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| : <i>We should swim cautiously.</i>
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| Kala lacks morphological prepositions and instead uses locational and relational verbs.
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| * <b>mita ke yempa tahe</b>
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| : <small>dog O table be.under</small>
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| : <i>The dog is under the table.</i>
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| == Clauses ==
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| Relative clauses (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:
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| * '''naka ke na itsatle te ameyo'''
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| : <small>woman O 1s love-REL from America</small>
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| : ''The woman (that) I love comes from America.''
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| * '''mayo ke na kitlayetle muyak'''
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| : <small>tool O 1s create-PST-REL do-NEG</small>
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| : ''The tool (that) I built doesn't function.''
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| * '''na ke ta yani unyak''' / '''na ke yani tayo unyak'''
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| : <small>1s O 2s mean know-NEG / 1s O meaning 2s.GEN know-NEG</small>
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| : ''I don't understand what you mean.''
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| Subordinate clauses rely on [[Kala#Conjunctions_.28penku.29|conjunctions]] and other particles.
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| * '''eya ta ke mpeka inaye yatli ta pasala'''
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| : <small>maybe 2s O toad eat-PST therefore 2s nauseous-become</small>
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| : ''If you ate the toad (which you might have), you might get sick.''
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| * '''naye na tasa ke masa okyohue anyaye'''
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| : <small>while 1s hunt O deer clearing-LOC see-PST</small>
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| : ''While hunting, I saw a deer in a clearing.''
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| == Questions ==
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| There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
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| ==== Polar Questions ====
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| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina'''
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| : <small>dog eat</small>
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| : ''The dog eats.''
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| * '''nta'i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
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| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
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| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
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| : ''You saw the elephant.''
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| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
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| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
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| : ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina ka'''
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| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
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| : ''Does the dog eat?''
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| * '''nta'i moku ka'''
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| : <small>baby sleep Q</small>
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| : ''Is the baby sleeping?''
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| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
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| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
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| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
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| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==== Content questions ====
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| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
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| : <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
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| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
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| : <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
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| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ko ta ka'''
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| : <small>person 2sg Q</small>
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| : ''Who are you?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''itla ka'''
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| : <small>this Q</small>
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| : ''What is this?''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''to kihu ka'''
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| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
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| : ''What's the weather like?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
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| |+ kanyo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| |-
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| ! object
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| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! person
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| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
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| |-
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| ! possession
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| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
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| |-
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| ! manner
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| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! place
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| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! reason
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| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! time
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| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! amount
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| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! which
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| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
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| |}
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| = Numbers =
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| '''Kala''' uses a base 10 number system. The basic numbers are as follows:
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
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| |+
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| |-
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| |-
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| | '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
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| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
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| | '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
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| | '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
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| | '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
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| | '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
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| |}
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| ==== Forming Larger Numbers ====
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| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
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| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
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| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
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| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
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| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
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| Long form numbers are used in formal situations, including financial transactions, especially involving large sums. Short form numbers are used in everyday speech and when calculating basic math.
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| ==== Other Number Forms ====
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+
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| |-
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! ordinal
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| ! multiple
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| ! fractional
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| |-
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| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
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| | '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth || '''tiueta'o'''<br>duodecuple || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
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| |-
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| | '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
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| |-
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| | '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
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| |-
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| | '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
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| |}
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| === Math Operations ===
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| '''Kala''' math is fairly basic and relies on particles and verbs to express functions.
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| Addition uses '''ma''' (''and; also''). There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
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| * '''ha'o ma ya'o ke pa'o a'''
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| : <small>3 and 5 O 8 COP</small>
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| : ''Three plus five is eight.''
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| Subtraction uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a negative form of the smaller integer. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
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| * '''tsa'o ma ya'ok ke na'o a'''
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| : <small>6 and 5-NEG O 1 COP</small>
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| : ''Six and five-less is one.''
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| Multiplication uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a multiple form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
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| * '''ha'o ma tima'o ke ueta'o a'''
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| : <small>3 and multiple-4 O 12 COP</small>
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| : ''Three times four is twelve.''
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| Division uses '''yeka''' (''divide; separate; partition''), or '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a multiple-negative form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
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| * '''tama'o ma ha'o ke pa'o yeka'''
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| : <small>24 and 3 O 8 division</small>
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| : ''Twenty-four divided by three is eight.''
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| [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]] | | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
