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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] | | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] | | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] | | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] | | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] | | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| = Introduction =
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| Kala is a personal [[Wikipedia:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[Wikipedia:Artistic_language#Personal_languages|artlang]]), based on my aesthetic preferences, not attached to any [[Wikipedia:Worldbuilding|conworld]] or conculture. This language draws on natlangs (natural language), other conlangs, and of course imagination. Kala was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. Kala’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of Kala lexemes are derived or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth), '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
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| == Characteristics ==
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| Kala has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]]. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be '''ina''' /iːˈna/ ‘food; to eat’. Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
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| * '''muya ka''' - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
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| * '''ina''' - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
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| * '''tamatse''' - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
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| * '''ueha ka''' - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
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| * '''nyasak''' - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
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| Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.
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| == Borrowing ==
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| Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| ''See also: [[Kala/etymology|etymology]]''
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| * '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[Wiktionary:pato|''pato'']]
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| * '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
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| * '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[Wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
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| * '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| * '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[Wiktionary:橙|''chéng'']]
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| * '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[Wiktionary:wasi'chu|''wasichu'']]
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| * '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[Wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| = Phonology =
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| == Consonants ==
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
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| {|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
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| |+Consonants
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| !
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| !Labial
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| !colspan=2|Alveolar
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| !Palatal
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| !Velar
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| !Glottal
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| |-
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| ! Nasal
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| | m ('''m''')
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| |colspan=2|n ('''n''')
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| | ɲ ('''ny''')
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| |-
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| ! Plosive
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| | p~b ('''p''')
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| |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
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| | k~g ('''g''')
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| | ʔ (''' ' ''')
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| |-
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| ! Affricate
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| | ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
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| |-
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| ! Continuant
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| | s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
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| | h~ɦ ('''h''')
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| |-
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| ! Semivowel
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| |colspan=2|
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| | j ('''y''')
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| | w ('''u''')
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| |}
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| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
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| * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
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| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
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| == Vowels ==
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Vowels
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| !
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| !'''Front'''
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| !'''Back'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Close'''
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| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Mid'''
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| |{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Open'''
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| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
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| |}
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| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
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| === Diphthongs ===
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| Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
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| == Phonotactics ==
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| '''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
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| * /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
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| === Syllables ===
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| {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
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| |+the 136 basic Kala syllables
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| |-
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| !
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| ! a
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| ! e
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| ! i
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| ! o
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| ! u
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| ! ua
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| ! ue
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| ! ya
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| ! ye
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| ! yo
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| ! ai
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| ! ao
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| ! uai
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| ! yao
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| |-
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| ! p
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| | align="center"|''(m)pa''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pe''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pi''
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| | align="center"|''(m)po''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pu''
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| | align="center"|''pua''
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| | align="center"|''pue''
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| | align="center"|''pya''
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| | align="center"|''pye''
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| | align="center"|''pyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! t
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| | align="center"|''(n)ta''
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| | align="center"|''(n)te''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ti''
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| | align="center"|''(n)to''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! k
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| | align="center"|''(n)ka''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ke''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ki''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ko''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ku''
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| | align="center"|''kua''
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| | align="center"|''kue''
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| | align="center"|''kya''
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| | align="center"|''kye''
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| | align="center"|''kyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! m
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| | align="center"|''ma''
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| | align="center"|''me''
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| | align="center"|''mi''
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| | align="center"|''mo''
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| | align="center"|''mu''
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| | align="center"|''mua''
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| | align="center"|''mue''
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| | align="center"|''mya''
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| | align="center"|''mye''
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| | align="center"|''myo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! n
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| | align="center"|''na''
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| | align="center"|''ne''
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| | align="center"|''ni''
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| | align="center"|''no''
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| | align="center"|''nu''
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| | align="center"|''nua''
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| | align="center"|''nue''
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| | align="center"|''nya''
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| | align="center"|''nye''
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| | align="center"|''nyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! s
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| | align="center"|''sa''
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| | align="center"|''se''
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| | align="center"|''si''
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| | align="center"|''so''
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| | align="center"|''su''
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| | align="center"|''sua''
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| | align="center"|''sue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! h
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| | align="center"|''ha''
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| | align="center"|''he''
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| | align="center"|''hi''
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| | align="center"|''ho''
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| | align="center"|''hu''
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| | align="center"|''hua''
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| | align="center"|''hue''
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| | align="center"|''hya''
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| | align="center"|''hye''
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| | align="center"|''hyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! ts
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| | align="center"|''tsa''
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| | align="center"|''tse''
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| | align="center"|''tsi''
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| | align="center"|''tso''
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| | align="center"|''tsu''
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| | align="center"|''tsua''
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| | align="center"|''tsue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! tl
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| | align="center"|''tla''
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| | align="center"|''tle''
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| | align="center"|''tli''
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| | align="center"|''tlo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! l
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| | align="center"|''la''
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| | align="center"|''le''
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| | align="center"|''li''
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| | align="center"|''lo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! -
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| | align="center"|''a''
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| | align="center"|''e''
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| | align="center"|''i''
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| | align="center"|''o''
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| | align="center"|''u''
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| | align="center"|''ua''
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| | align="center"|''ue''
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| | align="center"|''ya''
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| | align="center"|''ye''
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| | align="center"|''yo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
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| |}
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|
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| <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.</small>
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| == Stress ==
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| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).
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|
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| = Orthography =
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|
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| * Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
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|
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| = Morphology =
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| Kala is a mostly [[wp:Agglutinative language|agglutinative]], [[wp:Polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]] language that makes extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, it can add many different [[wp:Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[wp:Suffix|suffix]]es to a [[wp:Root (linguistics)|root]] until very long words are formed, and a single word can sometimes constitute an entire sentence.
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| == Nouns ==
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| Nouns in '''Kala''' are inflected only for number. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
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| === Number ===
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| * Most nouns in '''Kala''' distinguish singular and plural number. There are several different “regular” ways to form the plural, which are to a certain degree predictable from the phonological shape of the singular form. Nouns can be marked [[wp:Plural|plural]] ('''PL''') by '''-m''' (or '''-lo''' if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
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| ** In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "dog three exist" keeps the word '''mita''' "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
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| ** The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning "group; collection; gathering". It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
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| ::
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| * '''ata''' - name > '''atalo''' - names
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| * '''mita''' – dog > '''mitam''' - dogs > '''tlimita''' – a pack of dogs
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| * '''yama''' – mountain > '''tliyamalo''' – mountain ranges
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| * '''tsaka''' – house > '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
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| * '''puku''' – clothing > '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
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| === Gender ===
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| [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Gender]] is not normally marked but can be by '''-na''' (FEM), '''-ta''' (MASC), or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
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| == Pronouns ==
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|
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| Personal pronouns:
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|
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| * '''na''' - 1st person
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| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
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| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
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| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
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| {{col-break}}
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| Modifiers:
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|
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| * '''-m''' - plural
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| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
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| * '''e-''' - patient
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| * '''-i''' - reflexive
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| * '''-yo''' - possessive
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| {{col-break}}
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| Other pronouns include:
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|
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| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
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| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
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| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
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| * '''nokua''' - everything
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| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
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| * '''nok''' - nothing
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| {{col-end}}
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|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ nkalo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Agent
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| ! Patient
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| ! Reflexive
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| ! Possessive
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| ! Reciprocal
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| |-
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| ! 1sg
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| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 2sg
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| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 3sg
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| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 4sg
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| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
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| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| ! 2pl
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| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 3pl
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| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
| |
| ! 4pl
| |
| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| === Determiners & Demostratives ===
| |
|
| |
| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
| |
|
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
| |
| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
| |
| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
| |
|
| |
| Examples:
| |
|
| |
| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs''
| |
| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
| |
| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
| |
|
| |
| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
| |
| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
| |
| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
| |
| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
| |
| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
| |
| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
| |
| * '''maha''' - more; plus
| |
| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| ==== Correlatives ====
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 1000px;"
| |
| |+ uatse
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
| |
| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
| |
| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
| |
| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
| |
| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
| |
| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! mo<br>''(place)''
| |
| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ko<br>''(person)''
| |
| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
| |
| |-
| |
| ! uku<br>''(amount)''
| |
| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ama<br>''(time)''
| |
| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
| |
| |-
| |
| ! so<br>''(kind, type)''
| |
| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
| |
| |-
| |
| ! no<br>''(thing)''
| |
| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
| |
| |-
| |
| ! to<br>''(manner, way)''
| |
| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| == Numbers ==
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| === Forming Larger Numbers ===
| |
|
| |
| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
| |
| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
| |
| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
| |
| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
| |
| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
| |
|
| |
| === Other Number Forms ===
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! ordinal
| |
| ! multiple
| |
| ! fractional
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| === Math Operations ===
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha'o ma ya'o ke pa'o a'''
| |
| : <small>3 and 5 O 8 COP</small>
| |
| : ''Three plus five is eight.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tsa'o ma ya'ok ke na'o a'''
| |
| : <small>6 and 5-NEG O 1 COP</small>
| |
| : ''Six and five-less is one.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha'o ma tima'o ke ueta'o a'''
| |
| : <small>3 and multiple-4 O 12 COP</small>
| |
| : ''Three times four is twelve.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tama'o ma ha'o ke pa'o yeka'''
| |
| : <small>24 and 3 O 8 division</small>
| |
| : ''Twenty-four divided by three is eight.''
| |
|
| |
| == Verbs ==
| |
|
| |
| '''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']] and the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning; their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adverbial, and plural endings are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
| |
|
| |
| <tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
| |
|
| |
| Example:
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Verb Stem
| |
| ! Size/Importance
| |
| ! Mood
| |
| ! Aspect
| |
| ! Tense
| |
| ! Negative
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
| |
| |-
| |
| | run || DIM || ABIL || PROG || PST || NEG
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| * '''na empahipankoyek'''
| |
| : <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
| |
|
| |
| === Passivity ===
| |
|
| |
| The passive voice is formed by prefixing '''e'''- ([[wp:Patient_(grammar)|patient marker]]) to pronouns, and the object marker '''ke''' for nouns, or '''nya''' "for, by, via".
| |
|
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha yatsi'''
| |
| : <small>3sg bite</small>
| |
| : ''She bites.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha yapo'''
| |
| : <small>3sg build</small>
| |
| : ''She builds.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
|
| |
| * '''eha yatsi'''
| |
| : <small>P.3sg bite</small>
| |
| : ''He is bitten.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''etla nya ha yapo'''
| |
| : <small>P.4sg by 3sg build</small>
| |
| : ''It is built by him.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| === Tense ===
| |
|
| |
| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
| |
|
| |
| * The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
| |
| :'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
| |
|
| |
| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
| |
| :'''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
| |
| |+ eme
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present
| |
| | '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past
| |
| | '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Recent Past
| |
| | '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Remote Past
| |
| | '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Future
| |
| | '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Immediate Future
| |
| | '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Distant Future
| |
| | '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| === Aspect ===
| |
|
| |
| There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| |+ ti'a
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Progressive
| |
| | '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Perfective
| |
| | '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Inchoative
| |
| | '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Frequentative
| |
| | '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| === Mood ===
| |
|
| |
| ==== Negative ====
| |
|
| |
| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
| |
|
| |
| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
| |
| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
| |
|
| |
| === Attributives ===
| |
|
| |
| The attributive form of a verb is used in non-predicative situations, performing an adjective-like function. With intransitive verbs it describes the subject; with transitive verbs it usually describes the patient or theme and is thus roughly comparable to a passive participle in meaning. Essentially, Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
| |
| {{Col-begin}}
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
| |
| ** ''The dog hungers.''
| |
| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
| |
| ** ''The hungry dog.''
| |
| ** ''A hungry dog.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
| |
| ** ''The house is a little red.''
| |
| ** ''The light-red house.''
| |
| ** ''A pale red house.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
| |
| ** ''The coat is wet.''
| |
| ** ''The wet coat.''
| |
| ** ''A wet coat.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
| |
| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
| |
| ** ''The very big horses.''
| |
| {{Col-end}}
| |
| ==== Comparison ====
| |
| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
| |
| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
| |
| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ==== Relative ====
| |
| In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
| |
|
| |
| * '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
| |
| * '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
| |
|
| |
| * '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
| |
| : <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
| |
| : ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ke naka patlole pako'''
| |
| : <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
| |
| : ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
| |
|
| |
| * '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
| |
| : ''This is the house in which I live.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| === Adpositionals ===
| |
| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
| |
| {{Col-begin}}
| |
| {{Col-2}}
| |
| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
| |
| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
| |
| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
| |
| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
| |
| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
| |
| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
| |
| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
| |
| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
| |
| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
| |
| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
| |
| * '''maye''' - between; among
| |
| {{Col-2}}
| |
| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
| |
| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
| |
| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
| |
| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
| |
| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
| |
| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
| |
| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
| |
| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
| |
| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
| |
| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
| |
| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
| |
| {{Col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| * '''na ke ito yamahue anyapa'''
| |
| : <small>1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL</small>
| |
| : ''I can see a tree on the hill.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti'''
| |
| : <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small>
| |
| : ''The children are playing outside of the house.''
| |
|
| |
| = Word formation =
| |
|
| |
| == Compounding ==
| |
|
| |
| New nouns are usually created through head-initial compounding, using both nominal and verbal stems as the second, dependent element of the compound. The resulting lexical entries usually behave as single phonological words, which, however, have four full syllables: '''kuatlatloha''' "grass snake". Compounding of more than two elements is not common.
| |
|
| |
| * '''kayapusu''' - "earthquake" > '''kaya''' - earth + '''pusu''' - vibrate
| |
| * '''asuaseka''' - "leather" > '''asua''' - skin + '''seka''' - dry
| |
|
| |
| There are also numerous [[Kala/affixes|'''affixes''']] used to form new meanings. A few examples are;
| |
|
| |
| * '''tiyasu''' - "bakery" > '''tiya''' - bread + '''-su''' - market; shop
| |
| * '''onyomo''' - "school" > '''onyo''' - learn + '''-mo''' - place; location
| |
| * '''kuhasa''' - "kitchen" > '''kuha''' - cook + '''-sa''' - room; chamber
| |
| * '''pyetampu''' - "egg-shaped" > '''pyeta''' - egg + '''-mpu''' - shape; form
| |
|
| |
| == Derivation ==
| |
|
| |
| === Verbalization ===
| |
|
| |
| Causative verbs (as well as achievement verbs) can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mya|-'''mya''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''muya''']] - ''"do, make, cause"'') or [[Kala/affixes#la|-'''la''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ela''']] - ''"become; change into; turn into"''). This type of derivation is fairly common; however, verbs created in this way are syntactically defective and tend to appear only in serial verb constructions.
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|
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| * '''tinamya''' - "bend" < '''tina''' - be bent
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| * '''pitamya''' - "hollow out" < '''pita''' - be hollow; void
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| * '''enomya''' - "annoy, bother" < '''eno''' - be angry
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| * '''tsipuela''' - "slow down" < '''tsipue''' - be slow
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| * '''kyolola''' - "speed up" < '''kyolo''' - be quick
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|
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| Intensive verbs can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mpa|-'''mpa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#mpa|'''mpa''']] - ''"many; much; very"''), or more commonly [[Kala/affixes#hu|-'''hu''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''kyohu''']] - ''"be drastic; extreme; aggressive"'').
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|
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| * '''ketsahu''' - "dismiss, reject, repudiate" < '''ketsa''' - doubt
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| * '''amyampa''' - "fall in love with" < '''amya''' - be fond of; like; prefer (of people)
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|
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| Adjective-like stative verbs which name an associated quality may be formed from nouns by [[Kala/affixes#n|-'''n''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#na|'''no''']] - ''"thing" (-ish, -ly, -ous)'').
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|
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| * '''timan''' - "be cruel, be bloody" < '''tima''' - blood
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| * '''amyan''' - "be welcoming, be hospitable" < '''amya''' - be fond of
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|
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| === Nominalization ===
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|
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| ==== Agentive ====
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|
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| Nouns referring to a human subject of a verb (''usually in a habitual sense'') can be formed with the agentive suffix [[Kala/affixes#ko|-'''ko''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''ko''']] - ''"individual; person"''). This suffix changes to '''-tlo''' when a [[wp:Velar_stop|velar stop]] is present in the preceding syllable.
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|
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| * '''kitlako''' - "craftsman" < '''kitla''' - create; invent; make-up
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| * '''sutako''' - "inhabitant (of)" < '''suta''' - live; reside; dwell; inhabit; settle
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| * '''yekatlo''' - "unmarried young adult" < '''yeka''' - be separate, be on one's own
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| * '''makatlo''' - "musician" < '''maka''' - music; play ~; tune
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| * '''tsaniko''' - "storyteller" < '''tsani''' - recite, tell (a story)
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|
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| ==== Instrumental ====
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|
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| Instrument nouns and names for tools and other inanimates can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#nyo|-'''nyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mayo''']] - ''"device; equipment; tool"'').
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|
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| * '''hitanyo''' - "atlatl (spear-thrower)" < '''hita''' - throw; cast; expel
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| * '''amonyo''' - "handle (for carrying)" < '''amo''' - transport; carry
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| * '''kusunyo''' - "clasp, brooch, fibula" < '''kusu''' - squeeze
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| * '''toponyo''' - "lock" < '''topo''' - door; gate
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|
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| ==== Locative ====
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|
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| Location nouns can be formed from both nouns and verbs by several suffixes. These indicate specific places where either something happens, or something resides there are a few affixes which modify both verbs and nouns.
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|
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| [[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mo''']] - ''"location; place; site"''). This suffix is used to form the general idea of where something happens or resides.
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|
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| * '''tanamo''' - "battlefield; boxing ring; wrestling mat, etc." < '''tana''' - fight; combat
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| * '''uelomo''' - "bicycle-place; bike path; bike rack, etc." < '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
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| * '''inamo''' - "eat-place; dining room; restaurant" [This can also mean food-place; pantry, etc.] < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''onyomo''' - "learn-place; school" < '''onyo''' - learn; study
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|
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| [[Kala/affixes#su|-'''su''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''suku''']] - ''"market; shop; store"''). This suffix is used to specify a business where items are produced and/or sold.
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|
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| * '''tiyasu''' - "bread-shop; bakery" < '''tiya''' - bread
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| * '''inasu''' - "food-market; grocery store; restaurant" < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''uelosu''' - "bicycle-shop" < '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
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|
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| [[Kala/affixes#kyo|-'''kyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ha|'''hakyo''']] - ''"college; school; university"''). This suffix is used to specify a location where students learn. This can also be used to indicate a school of thought, or ideology.
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|
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| * '''tanakyo''' - "dojo; martial arts training academy; etc." < '''tana''' - fight; combat
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| * '''kuhakyo''' - "culinary-school; chef’s academy" < '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
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| * '''tsiyakyo''' - "liberalism" < '''tsiya''' - freedom; liberty
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| * '''ya'akyo''' - "medical-school" < '''ya'a''' - medicine; drug; cure
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|
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| [[Kala/affixes#sa|-'''sa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''sala''']] - ''"chamber; room; section"''). This is more specific than
| |
| [[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] and used primarily for spaces inside buildings.
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|
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| * '''kuhasa''' - "cook-room; kitchen" < '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
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| * '''mokusa''' - "sleep-room; bedroom" < '''moku''' - sleep; rest
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| * '''inasa''' - "eat-room; dining room" < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''onyosa''' - "learn-room; classroom" < '''onyo''' - learn; study
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|
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| ==== Diminutive ====
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|
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|
| |
| ==== Augmentative ====
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|
| |
|
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| ==== Honorific ====
| |
|
| |
| = Syntax =
| |
|
| |
| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
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|
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| <tt>AGENT--PATIENT--VERB</tt> (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
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|
| |
| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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|
| |
| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
| |
| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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|
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
| |
| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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|
| |
| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| == Simple sentences ==
| |
| === Intransitive clauses ===
| |
|
| |
| Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
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|
| |
| * '''nta'i moku'''
| |
| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby sleeps.''
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|
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| * '''mita ina'''
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| : <small>dog eat</small>
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| : ''The dog eats.''
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|
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| * '''sama nala'''
| |
| : <small>sun shine</small>
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| : ''The sun shines.''
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|
| |
| * '''kamahi ke naha ya'e'''
| |
| : <small>town-DIM O river be.near</small>
| |
| : ''There is a village near the river.''
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|
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| * '''ke apua muyapua'''
| |
| : <small>O song do-PFV</small>
| |
| : ''The song has been sung.''
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|
| |
| === Transitive clauses ===
| |
|
| |
| Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ona ke matla kuha'''
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| : <small>mother O stew cook</small>
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| : ''The mother is cooking stew.''
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|
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| * '''tasako ke masala yake'''
| |
| : <small>hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase</small>
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| : ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
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|
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| * '''kyali ke itohuatla peha'''
| |
| : <small>spear O tree-oak pierce</small>
| |
| : ''The spear pierces the oak tree.''
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|
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| * '''tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata'''
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| : <small>hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill</small>
| |
| : ''The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.''
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|
| |
| === Predication ===
| |
|
| |
| Nominal predicates are formed with the copula '''a''', using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.
| |
|
| |
| * '''tsola ke haya a'''
| |
| : <small>fox O animal COP</small>
| |
| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (grammatical)
| |
|
| |
| * '''tsola haya'''
| |
| : <small>fox animal</small>
| |
| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (idiomatic)
| |
|
| |
| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo a'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP</small>
| |
| : ''This man is my husband.'' (grammatical)
| |
|
| |
| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS</small>
| |
| : ''This man is my husband.'' (idiomatic)
| |
|
| |
| === Oblique participants ===
| |
|
| |
| Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.
| |
|
| |
| ==== Dative and benefactive ====
| |
|
| |
| Dative participants are marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta'''
| |
| : <small>child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give</small>
| |
| : ''The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ikema nya na tlahi'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy</small>
| |
| : ''This task is easy for me.''
| |
|
| |
| Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
| |
|
| |
| * '''mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu'''
| |
| : <small>holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite</small>
| |
| : ''The shaman recites a story for the siblings.''
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|
| |
| Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using '''nya''':
| |
|
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| * '''tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye'''
| |
| : <small>enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
| |
|
| |
| ==== Instrumental ====
| |
| Instrumental participants are marked with the preposition wo ‘with, by, using’.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ona ke nta'i hayo ma'a tlimu nohya'''
| |
| : <small>mother O baby 3sg.POSS with blanket wrap</small>
| |
| : ''The mother wraps her baby in a blanket.''
| |
|
| |
| In passive sentences, agents may be reintroduced with the preposition '''nya''' ‘by’:
| |
|
| |
| * '''ke aha nya ntahi apua'u'''
| |
| : <small>O melody by child sing-PFV</small>
| |
| : ''The song has been sung by the child.''
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|
| |
| ==== Comitative ====
| |
| ==== Locative ====
| |
|
| |
| === Negation ===
| |
|
| |
| Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix '''-k''' (or '''-nke'''), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like '''tlok ak''' (<small>AG-NEG COP-NEG</small>) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).
| |
|
| |
| * '''intahi ke nok onyotlik'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''This child will learn nothing.''
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|
| |
| * '''mita inyak'''
| |
| : <small>dog hunger-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''The dog is not hungry.''
| |
|
| |
| The suffix '''-nke''' also marks the [[wp:Abessive_case|abessive]], meaning ''without, or lacking''.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye'''
| |
| : <small>3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST</small>
| |
| : ''He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.''
| |
|
| |
| === Interrogatives ===
| |
|
| |
| There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
| |
|
| |
| ==== Polar questions ====
| |
|
| |
| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat</small>
| |
| : ''The dog eats.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''nta'i moku'''
| |
| : <small>baby sleep</small>
| |
| : ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
| |
| : ''You saw the elephant.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
| |
| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina ka'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
| |
| : ''Does the dog eat?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''nta'i moku ka'''
| |
| : <small>baby sleep Q</small>
| |
| : ''Is the baby sleeping?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
| |
| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| ==== Content questions ====
| |
|
| |
| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
| |
|
| |
| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
| |
| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
| |
| : <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
| |
|
| |
| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
| |
|
| |
| * '''ko ta ka'''
| |
| : <small>person 2sg Q</small>
| |
| : ''Who are you?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''itla ka'''
| |
| : <small>this Q</small>
| |
| : ''What is this?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''to kihu ka'''
| |
| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
| |
| : ''What's the weather like?''
| |
|
| |
| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
| |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| |+ kanyo
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! object
| |
| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! person
| |
| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! possession
| |
| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! manner
| |
| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! place
| |
| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! reason
| |
| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! time
| |
| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! amount
| |
| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! which
| |
| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| === Passives ===
| |
| === Reflexives and reciprocals ===
| |
| == Complex sentences ==
| |
| === Clause coordination ===
| |
| === Coordination of noun phrases ===
| |
| === Complement clauses ===
| |
| === Relative clauses ===
| |
| === Adverbial clauses ===
| |
|
| |
|
| = Serial verb construction =
| |
| == Sequential events ==
| |
| === Lexicalized sequential serials ===
| |
| == Grammatical use of serial verbs ==
| |
| === Causatives ===
| |
| === Comparison ===
| |
| === Motion verbs ===
| |
| ==== Direction and deixis ====
| |
| ==== Manner of motion ====
| |
| ==== Source and target ====
| |
| === Posture and orientation ===
| |
| === Aspect ===
| |
| = Advanced Syntax =
| |
| == Adverbial Constructions ==
| |
| === Time ===
| |
| === Place ===
| |
| === Reason ===
| |
| === Purpose ===
| |
| === Result ===
| |
| === Manner ===
| |
| === Measure ===
| |
| === Frequency ===
| |
| === Conditionals ===
| |
| === Consessives ===
| |
| == Modality ==
| |
| == Evidentiality ==
| |
| == Volition ==
| |
| == Reported Speech ==
| |
| === Quotations ===
| |
| === Indirect Speech ===
| |
| === Indirect Questions ===
| |
|
| |
|
| [[Category:Conlangs]] | | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
