Vrkhazhian: Difference between revisions

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Vrkhazhian (ʾEšd Yat-Vṛḵažaẇ) is a Western Hašakam language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhi who live in [[The Vrkhazhians|the Empire of Yat-Vṛḵaž]]. The earliest form of this language, known as Classical Vrkhazhian, was spoken as early as 950 years ago.
<big>
Vrkhazhian (''Śād Warḫāsaḫ'' "Mouth of Vrkhazh") is a language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhians who live in [[The Vrkhazhians|Warḫāsam]].
{{infobox
{{infobox
|image=Flag-Vrkhazh.png
|image=VrkhazhianFlagSRLT.png
|size=350px
|size=350px
|bg=#6BB6B6
|bg=#32cdcd
|name=Vrkhazhian
|name=Vrkhazhian
|native=ʾEšd Yat-Vṛḵažaẇ
|native=Śād Warḫāsaḫ, Warḫāsāli
|pronounce=/e̞çt jatβɹ̩ˈxaʝao̯/
|pronounce=[ˈɬɑːd wɑr.ˈxɑː.sɑx], [wɑr.xɑː.ˈsɑː.li]
|in=Vrkhazh (Yat-Vṛḵažu)
|in=Vrkhazh (Warḫāsam)
|script=ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
|script=Añmānas
|tree=Hašakam Languages
|tree=Proto-Ch'ahdic
:Himoshian
:Proto-A
::Takshian
::Proto-AA
:::Proto-Vrkhazhian
:::Proto-AAA
::::Classical Vrkhazhian
::::Old Vrkhazhian
:::::'''Modern Vrkhazhian'''
:::::'''Imperial Vrkh.'''
|morph=highly fusional, weakly agglutinative
:::::'''Common Vrkh.'''
|morph=agglutinative, triconsonantal root-based morphology
|ms=nominative-accusative  
|ms=nominative-accusative  
|wo=SOV/VSX
|wo=Free word order, but typically verb-initial
|creator=[[User:Ahzoh|Malcolm G. Holborne]]}}
|creator=[[User:Ahzoh|Malcolm G. Holborne]]}}




==History==
==History==
===Dialects===
===Registers===
Vrkhazhian has two major dialects and several minor dialects. The area of the two dialects are divided by two distinct sides; the north-eastern portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Mukhebic, while the south-western portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Uzerian. The numerous smaller dialects are spread in and around these two halves with varying degrees of density.
Vrkhazhian is divided into two primary registers:


The table below lists the two major dialects:
* Imperial Vrkhazhian ('''Ḳabbāˀas''' ''"The Royal [Speech]"'') is the written variety of Vrkhazhian based upon a dialect of Old Vrkhazhian spoken by the founder of the Empire, Ezu-Nardikh the Great, and his supporters.
 
* Common Vrkhazhian ('''Lumbāˀas''' ''"The Common [Speech]"'') is the spoken variety based around the dialect of the capital city of Uzur.
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Dialects of Vrkhazhian
|-
! Dialect
! Location
|-
| Uzerian
| South-West Vrkhazh (originating from the city of Tom-ʾEzru)
|-
| Mukhebic
| North-East Vrkhazh (originating from the city of Tom-Ṃḵebu)
|}
 
Mukhebic is considered the dialect of business and trading, originating from the city of Mukheb, which along with Qazhd, make up one of the Pillars of Trade and Commerce. Uzerian is considered the dialect of politics and military affairs, originating from Uzer, the Capital City where the Emperor and Empress reside. When conducting business and trading with others, it is expected to communicate in the Mukhebic dialect while the Uzerian dialect is used for everything involving politics and the military. The knowledge and fluency of both dialects is a must for any meaningful life in the Vrkhazhian Empire.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
The table below shows the 38 consonant phonemes found in the Uzerian dialect of Vrkhazhian:
The table below shows the 25 consonant phonemes found in Vrkhazhian. Letters in angle brackets indicate where the romanization of the phoneme differs from its IPA representation.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;"
|+Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes
|-
|-
!rowspan=2 COLSPAN=2|&nbsp;
! style="width: 8em;" rowspan="2" colspan="2" |  
!rowspan=2|Bilabial
! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Bilabial
!colspan=2|Alveolar
! colspan="2" | Coronal
!rowspan=2|Palatal
! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Velar
!rowspan=2|Velar
! style="width: 4em;" rowspan="2" | Glottal
!rowspan=2|Uvular
!rowspan=2|Glottal
|-
|-
!<small>Central</small>
! style="width: 4em; font-size: smaller" | Central
!<small>Lateral</small>
! style="width: 4em; font-size: smaller" | Lateral
|-
|-
!colspan=2|Nasal
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| '''m''' [m]
| m
| '''n''' [n] ||
| n
|
|
| ŋ ⟨'''''n̮'''''⟩
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | Stop
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiceless
| p
| t
|
|
| '''ṉ''' [ɴ]
| k
| rowspan="3" | ʔ ⟨'''''ˀ'''''⟩
|-
! style="font-size: smaller" | Ejective
| pʼ ⟨'''''ṗ'''''⟩
| tʼ ⟨'''''ṭ'''''⟩
|
|
| kʼ ⟨'''''ḳ'''''⟩
|-
|-
!rowspan=4|Stop
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiced
!<small>Preaspirated</small>
| b
| '''p͛''' [ʰp]
| d
| '''t͛''' [ʰt] ||
|
| '''k͛''' [ʰk]
| '''q͛''' [ʰq]
|
|
| g
|-
|-
!<small>Voiceless</small>
! rowspan="3" | Fricative
| '''p''' [p]
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiceless
| '''t''' [t] ||
| f
| s
| ɬ ⟨'''''ś'''''⟩
| x ⟨'''''ḫ'''''⟩
|  
|  
| '''k''' [k]
| '''q''' [q]
| '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
|-
|-
!<small>Emphatic</small>
! style="font-size: smaller" | Ejective
| '''ṗ''' [ɸ~ʍ̝~w̝]
|
| '''ṭ''' [θ] ||
| sʼ ⟨'''''ṣ'''''⟩
| ɬʼ ⟨'''''ṣ́'''''⟩
|
|  
|  
| '''ḳ''' [q]
|-
| '''q̇''' [χ]
! style="font-size: smaller" | Voiced
|
| z
| ɮ ⟨'''''ź'''''⟩
|
|
|
|-
|-
!<small>Voiced</small>
! colspan="2" | Liquid
| '''b''' [b]
|
| '''d''' [d] ||
| r
| l
|  
|  
| '''g''' [g]
|
|
|
|-
|-
!rowspan=2|Affricate
! colspan="2" | Semivowel
!<small>voiceless</small>
| w
|
| '''ẕ''' [t͡s] || '''ć''' [t͡ɬ]
| '''č''' [c]
|
|
|
|
| j ⟨'''''y'''''⟩
|
|-
|}
All consonants except for /j w ʔ/ can be geminated (pronounced twice as long) which is indicated in writing by simply doubling the letter.
===Vowels===
Vrkhazhian possesses the following monophthongs:
{|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! style="width: 70px; " |Front
! style="width: 70px; " |Back
|-
!Close
| i iː
| u uː
|-
!Open
| ɛ ɛː
| ɑ ɑː
|}
The short vowels /ɛ ɑ i u/ are represented in writing as ⟨e a i u⟩ while the long vowels /ɛː ɑː iː uː/ are either represented with a macron ⟨ē, ā, ī, ū⟩ or a circumflex ⟨ê, â, î, û⟩. The usage of a circumflex in writing is to indicate vowel coalescence as a result of the contraction of the weak consonants /ʔ j w/.
===Allophony===
====Plosives====
*The plosives /p b t d k g/ assimilate in voicing when they precede a plosive of the same place of articulation. An example of this allophony is demonstrated with the verb '''alad-''' "fight, oppose": under normal circumstances its stem is '''alad-''' such as in '''aladna''' "I fought, I opposed"; however, when, for example, the first person plural subject suffix '''-ta''' is  added, it becomes '''alatta''' "we fought, we opposed"
*The plosives /p b t d k g/ also assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede fricatives of the same place of articulation
====Nasals====
*???
====Fricatives====
*the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede another fricative of the same place of articulation.
*the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ become affricates word-initially.
====Other====
*The velar consonants /ŋ k g x/ become partially-rounded [ŋ͗ k̹ g͗ x̹] or fully-rounded [ŋʷ kʷ gʷ xʷ] before back vowels.
===Symmetrical Assimilation===
{|
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Components
! Result
|-
| b + p
| rowspan="2" | pp
|-
| m + p
|-
| p + b
| rowspan="2" | bb
|-
| m + b
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|}
|
|
| ||
| '''j''' [ɟ]
|
|
|
|
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan=2|Fricative
! Components
!<small>voiceless</small>
! Result
| '''f''' [ɸ]
| '''s''' [s] || '''ś''' [ɬ]
| '''š''' [ç]
| '''ḵ''' [x]
| '''ḥ''' [χ]
| '''h''' [h]
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
| d + t
| '''v''' [β]
| rowspan="2" | tt
| '''z''' [z] ||
|-
| '''ž''' [ʝ]
| n + t
| '''ḡ''' [ɣ]
|-
| t + d
| rowspan="2" | dd
|-
| n + d
|-
|}
|
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Approximant
|
|
| '''r''' [ɹ] || '''l''' [l]
| '''y''' [j]
| '''w''' [w]
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Components
! Result
|-
| g + k
| rowspan="2" | kk
|-
| n̮ + k
|-
| k + g
| rowspan="2" | gg
|-
| n̮ + g
|-
|}
|}
===Asymmetrical Assimilation===
{|
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Components
! Result
|-
| p + f
| rowspan="3" | ff
|-
| b + f
|-
|-
!colspan=2|Trill
| m + f
|-
|}
|
|
| '''ř''' [r] ||
|
|
|
|
| '''ṟ''' [ʀ~ʁ]
|
|  
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|}
! Components
===Vowels===
! Result
{| class="IPA" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; background:none;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
|style="padding-bottom:3px;"| &nbsp;
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Front'''
| style="width: 60px; word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- front'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Central'''
| style="width: 60px;word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- back'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Back'''
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close'''
| t + s
| style="height: 210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position: relative;">[[File:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg|300px]]<div style="background:none; position:absolute; top:0; left:0;">
| rowspan="3" | ss
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none;"
|-
|-
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none; font-size:120%;"|
| d + s
 
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 13%; width: 1em; top: 8%; background: none;">'''i'''</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 69%; width: 1em; top: 24%; background: none;">'''u'''</div>
 
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS -->
 
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS -->
 
<!-- MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 40%; width: 1em; top: 45%; background: none;">'''e̞'''</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 57%; width: 1em; top: 43%; background: white;">'''ə'''</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 78%; width: 1em; top: 46%; background: none;">'''o̞'''</div>
 
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS -->
 
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS -->
 
<!-- OPEN VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 77%; width: 1em; top: 69%; background: none;">
'''a'''</div>
|}
</div></div>
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;'''Near-close'''
| n + s
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close-mid'''
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Mid'''
| t + z
| rowspan="3" | zz
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open-mid'''
| d + z
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Near-open'''
| n + z
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open'''
|}
|}
<div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em">''The vowel phoneme /a/ is analyzed as being a continuum of open vowels ranging from front to back that are in free variation.</div>
|
 
|
{|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;"
|
|+Romanization of Vowel Phonemes
|
{| class="wikitable"  
|-
! Components
! Result
|-
|-
!
| t + ś
! style="width: 40px; " |Front
| rowspan="3" | śś
! style="width: 40px; " |Central
! style="width: 40px; " |Back
|-
|-
!Close
| d + ś
| '''i''' [i]
|
| '''u''' [u]
|-
|-
!Mid
| n + ś
| '''e''' [e̞]
| '''ə''' [ə]
| '''o''' [o̞]
|-
|-
!Open
| t + ź
|colspan="3"| '''a''' [a]
| rowspan="3" | źź
|}
Vrkhazhian only has three diphthongs:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vrkhazhian Diphthongs
! IPA
! Letter
! Example
|-
|-
| d + ź
|-
|-
| ae̯
| n + ź
| aẏ
| '''eye''' , p'''ie'''
|-
|-
|}
|
|
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| ao̯
! Components
| aẇ
! Result
| c'''ow''', '''ou'''t
|-
|-
| k + ḫ
| rowspan="3" | ḫḫ
|-
|-
| ɛo̯
| g + ḫ
| eẇ
| m'''ayo'''naise
|-
|-
| n̮ + ḫ
|-
|}
|}
|}


===Mukhebic Dialect===
===Syllable Structure and Prosody===
Unlike the more conservative Uzerian dialect, Mukhebic shows a lot more divergence from Classical Vrkhazhian, likely due to frequent trade in the region where it's spoken. Notable changes are:
The basic syllable structure is maximally (C)V(V)(C) whereby any syllable can begin with any consonant except for /ʔ/ and any syllable can end with any consonant except for /ʔ j w/. Vrkhazhian strongly dislikes consonant clusters in the onset or coda of a syllable and typically inserts vowels to break the offending clusters. The epenthetic vowels typically mirror the adjacent vowel.
*The vowels /e o/ raise to /i u/ and diphthongs /aj aw/ become /ai̯ au̯/.
*Medial /ya wa/ clusters become /i u/
*Gains a new vowel /y/ derived from /ju/ and /jo/, as well as a palatalized /u/.
*The vowel /ə/ becomes /yi̯/ after palatal consonants, /yu̯/ after velar consonants, and /ai̯/ after all other consonants.
*The emphatic consonants ⟨ṗ ṭ ḳ q̇⟩ maintain their secondary articulation although they become velarized.
*The consonants /q qˠ/ merge into their velar counterparts becoming /k kˠ/.
*The consonant /ʀ/ becomes /ʕ/.
*Gains the consonant /ɳ/ from palatalized /n ɴ/.
*The consonant /ɴ/ becomes /ŋ/.
*The consonants /β/ and /w/ merge to become /w̝/, and /ɸ/ becomes /f/.
*The preaspirated consonants /ʰp ʰt ʰk ʰq/ become /fː sː xː χː/.
 
===Allophony===
*The alveolar stop consonants /t d/ become [θ ð] in word-final positions after front vowels.
*The velar stop consonants /k g/ are assimilated into /q/ near /q ʰq ɴ χ/.
*The nasal consonants /n ɴ/ are analyzed as [n] before alveolar consonants, [ɲ] before palatal consonants, [ŋ] before velar consonants (including /w/), and [ɴ] before uvular consonants.
*The vowels /a i ə u/ are lowered to [ɑ e̞ ɐ o̞] if they occur after /q ʰq ɴ χ/.


===Syllable Structure===
Stress in Vrkhazhian is based on syllable weight, of which there are three degrees: light (V, CV); heavy (CVC, CV̄, CV̂), and superheavy (CV̄C, CV̂C).
The syllable structure of Vrkhazhian is analyzed as (C)C(V)(C)(C), where C stands for a consonant, V stands for a vowel. The consonants ⟨r m n⟩ also have syllabic counterparts /ɹ̩ m̩ n̩/ which are romanized as ⟨ṛ ṃ ṇ⟩.
 
Words cannot have a vowel hiatus, so an epenthetic /j/, /w/, or /h/ is added between the two vowels.
 
===Stress===
Stress is penultimate if the last syllable is open, and ultimate if the last syllable is closed.


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
Line 286: Line 303:
{{main|Nouns in Vrkhazhian}}
{{main|Nouns in Vrkhazhian}}


Vrkhazhian nouns are called '''maḡimud''' (singular '''maḡimu'''). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are five cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, allative, and ablative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. These genders are based on sex and strictly semantic, thus most nouns, such as inanimate objects, fall into the category of neuter.
Vrkhazhian nouns are called '''ğanūm''' (singular '''ğanum'''). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are four cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. When referring to humans, deities, and certain animals, masculine refers to beings and animals of the male sex as well as beings that identify with the male gender while feminine refers to beings and animals of the female sex as well as beings that identify with the female gender. When referring to non-humans, masculine refers to wild or dangerous animals (e.g. '''sammali''' "crocodile") or inanimate non-living things (e.g. '''adgi''' "sand") while feminine refers to domesticated or safe animals (e.g. '''ḫusu''' "horse") or more animate non-living things (e.g. '''masû''' "sea").
 
====Adjectival morphology====
Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender and number in agreement with the noun they modify. Adjectives follow nouns except for adjectives pertaining to colours, which instead precede the noun. Adjectives are almost entirely derived from verbs, with a few exceptions.
 
Most adjectives take the form ʾeC₁C₂aC₃, such as this adjective derived from the verb '''d-n-n''' (to be heavy):
{| class="wikitable"
|+ "Heavy"
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''ʾednan-i'' || ''ʾednan-a'' || ''ʾednan-u''
|-
! Plural
| ''ʾednan-il'' || ''ʾednan-an'' || ''ʾednan-ud''
|-
|}
Adjectives pertaining to colours take the form C₁aC₂C₂aC₃, such as this adjective derived from the verb '''ḵ-r-m''' (to be white):
{| class="wikitable"
|+ "White"
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''ḵarram-i'' || ''ḵarram-a'' || ''ḵarram-u''
|-
! Plural
| ''ḵarram-il'' || ''ḵarram-an'' || ''ḵarram-ud''
|-
|}
Adjectives pertaining to diseases take the form C₁aC₂awaC₃, such as this adjective derived from '''s-ḡ-b''' (to decay, to rot):
{| class="wikitable"
|+ "Necrotic"
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''saḡawab-i'' || ''saḡawab-a'' || ''saḡawab-u''
|-
! Plural
| ''saḡaẇb-il'' || ''saḡaẇb-an'' || ''saḡaẇb-ud''
|-
|}
Adjectives also have elative counterparts. The elative takes the form C₁aC₂C₁aC₃ and conveys a superlative meaning in most contexts and a comparative meaning in contexts involving comparisons.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ "Heavier/heaviest"
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''dandan-i'' || ''dandan-a'' || ''dandan-u''
|-
! Plural
| ''dandan-il'' || ''dandan-an'' || ''dandan-ud''
|-
|}
Elative adjectives pertaining to colours are formed by suffixing -it to a colour adjective.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ "Whiter/whitest"
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''ḵarram-iti'' || ''ḵarram-ita'' || ''ḵarram-itu''
|-
! Plural
| ''ḵarram-itil'' || ''ḵarram-itan'' || ''ḵarram-itud''
|-
|}


====Verbal morphology====
====Verbal morphology====
{{main|Verbs in Vrkhazhian}}
{{main|Verbs in Vrkhazhian}}


Vrkhazhian verbs are called '''madsiṟud''' (singular '''madsiṟu'''). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root (which is collectively called '''masčišu''' and translated as "pattern"), though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active, passive, causative, and reflexive). There are five tenses (past, past progressive, present, present progressive, and future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. There is only one aspect: the perfect, called '''saẕkeru''', which is indicated by reduplicating the entire verb. Additionally, there are also five moods (indicative, jussive, subjunctive, commissive, and propositive) and these are also indicated by prefix, placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix '''-am'''.
Vrkhazhian verbs are called '''narībūm''' (singular '''narībum'''). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root, though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active and passive). There are only two tenses (future and non-future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. Additionally, there are also two moods (indicative and subjunctive) although the indicative is unmarked. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix '''-am'''.
 
When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb '''p-r-ḫ''' (to say, to speak). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the first person singular realis, it is called '''paruḫna''' because that is the first person singular realis form of the verb.


When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb '''d-s-ṟ''' (to do, to perform, to execute, to act). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the active present singular indicative, it is called '''dusaṟ''' because that is the active present singular form of the verb.
====Adjectival morphology====
Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender, case, and number in agreement with the noun they modify.


===Pronouns===
Most adjectives are derived from verbs and take the form C₁aC₂C₂aC₃. Below is an example adjective derived from the verb '''s-g-l''' (to be old) with the meaning of "old":
====Personal Pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
In Vrkhazhian, there are 14 pronouns, each of which have their own forms for each of the five cases. In singular and plural, the 2nd and 3rd persons differentiate gender, while the 1st person does not. Instead, the 1st person plural pronouns are distinguished by clusivity: the inclusive 1st person plural includes the speaker and the addressee, while the exclusive 1st person plural excludes the addressee.
|+ s-g-l (to be old)
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan=2| || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive
|+Personal Pronouns
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive || colspan=2 | Allative || colspan=2 | Ablative
|-
|-
! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
! Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|1st
! Masculine
!<small>inclusive</small>
| ''saggal-im'' || ''saggal-īm''|| ''saggal-is'' || ''saggal-īs'' || ''saggal-in'' || ''saggal-īn''
| rowspan=2|žaẏ "I" || yeš "we" || rowspan=2|šadib || ʾažib || rowspan=2|šadik || ʾažik || rowspan=2|šadiš || ʾažiš || rowspan=2|šadit || ʾažit
|-
|-
!<small>exclusive</small>
! Feminine
| ṉal "we" || ṉalib || ṉalak || ṉaleš || ṉalat
| ''saggal-um'' || ''saggal-ūm'' || ''saggal-us'' || ''saggal-ūs'' || ''saggal-un'' || ''saggal-ūn''
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|2nd
! Neuter
!<small>masculine</small>
| ''saggal-as'' || ''saggal-ās'' || ''saggal-as'' || ''saggal-ās'' || ''saggal-aḫ'' || ''saggal-āḫ''
| kal "you" ||  ćul "you" || kalib || ćulib || kalak || ćulak || kaleš || ćoleš || kalat || ćulat
|-
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
|}
| kan "you" || ćun "you" || kanib || ćunib || kanak || ćunak || kaneš || ćoneš || kanat || ćunat
 
|-
=====Demonstrative Adjectives=====
! rowspan=3|3rd
Like English, Vrkhazhian makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these' known as "proximal") and far ('that, those' known as "distal") demonstrative expressions. Besides number, as in English, Vrkhazhian also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender as well as case.
!<small>masculine</small>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
| ḡal "he" || nul "they" || ḡalib || nulib || ḡalak || nulak || ḡaleš || nuleš || ḡalat || nulat
|+Proximal Demonstrative ("this", "these")
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ḡan "she" || nun "they" || ḡanib || nunib || ḡanak || nunak || ḡaneš || nuneš || ḡanat || nunat
|-
|-
!<small>neuter</small>
! style="width: 6em;" rowspan="2" |
| ḥol "they" || ṗal "they" || ḥolib || ṗalib || ḥolak || ṗalak || ḥoleš || ṗaleš || ḥolat || ṗalat
! colspan="2" | Feminine
! colspan="2" | Masculine
! colspan="2" | Neuter
! colspan="2" | Inanimate
|-
|-
! colspan=2|4th
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
|colspan=2 Align="center"|ʾaḥ "one" ||colspan=2 Align="center"|ʾaḥib ||colspan=2 Align="center"|ʾaḥak ||colspan=2 Align="center"| ʾaḥeš ||colspan=2 Align="center"|ʾaḥat
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
|-
|-
|}
! Nominative
The 4th person pronoun is a special pronoun that refers to generic or indefinite persons, usually translated as "one". An example of this is in the sentence:
| ''aḫḫ-um''
 
| ''aḫḫ-ūwa''
''ʾAd ʾaḥ tubedu susal, ʾaḥ ḥolib wiplal.''
| ''aḫḫ-im''
 
| ''aḫḫ-īya''
"If one takes a book, one must give it [back]."
| ''aḫḫ-am''
 
| ''aḫḫ-āya''
====Demonstrative Pronouns====
| rowspan="2" | ''aḫḫ-as''
There are three kinds demonstrative pronouns for three kinds of deixis: proximal, medial, and distal. The proximal indicates an object near the speaker, the medial indicates an object near the addressee, and the distal indicates and object away from both the speaker and the addressee. Demonstrative pronouns always mark their referent as definite.
| rowspan="2" | ''aḫḫ-āsa''
{| class="wikitable"
! || colspan=3 | Deixis
|-
|-
! Number || Proximal || Medial || Distal
! Accusative
|- align="center"
| ''aḫḫ-us''
| ''aḫḫ-ūsa''
| ''aḫḫ-is''
| ''aḫḫ-īsa''
| ''aḫḫ-as''
| ''aḫḫ-āsa''
|-
|-
|'''Singular''' || ''ʾib'' "this"||''ʾani'' "that" || ''maẏ'' "yonder"
! Ergative
| ''aḫḫ-un''
| ''aḫḫ-ūna''
| ''aḫḫ-in''
| ''aḫḫ-īna''
| ''aḫḫ-an''
| ''aḫḫ-āna''
| ''aḫḫ-an''
| ''aḫḫ-āna''
|-
|-
|'''Plural''' || ''ʾibim'' "these"||''ʾanim'' "those" || ''maẏm'' "yonder"
! Genitive
| ''aḫḫ-uḫ''
| ''aḫḫ-ūwa''
| ''aḫḫ-iḫ''
| ''aḫḫ-īya''
| ''aḫḫ-aḫ''
| ''aḫḫ-āya''
| ''aḫḫ-aḫ''
| ''aḫḫ-āya''
|-
|}
|}


====Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
There are five interrogative pronouns and three interrogative adverbs.
|+Distal Demonstrative ("that", "those")
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Interrogative Pronouns
! English
! Vrkhazhian
|-
|-
| who? || ''ʾelmu''
! style="width: 6em;" rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" | Feminine
! colspan="2" | Masculine
! colspan="2" | Neuter
! colspan="2" | Inanimate
|-
|-
| what? || ''maʾlimu''
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
|-
|-
| where? || ''ʾolmayu''
! Nominative
| ''idd-um''
| ''idd-ūwa''
| ''idd-im''
| ''idd-īya''
| ''idd-am''
| ''idd-āya''
| rowspan="2" | ''idd-as''
| rowspan="2" | ''idd-āsa''
|-
|-
| which? || ''ʾaqab''
! Accusative
| ''idd-us''
| ''idd-ūsa''
| ''idd-is''
| ''idd-īsa''
| ''idd-as''
| ''idd-āsa''
|-
|-
| how many? || ''ʾawar''
! Ergative
| ''idd-un''
| ''idd-ūna''
| ''idd-in''
| ''idd-īna''
| ''idd-an''
| ''idd-āna''
| ''idd-an''
| ''idd-āna''
|-
|-
! Genitive
| ''idd-uḫ''
| ''idd-ūwa''
| ''idd-iḫ''
| ''idd-īya''
| ''idd-aḫ''
| ''idd-āya''
| ''idd-aḫ''
| ''idd-āya''
|-
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
===Pronouns===
|+ Interrogative Adverbs
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! English
|+ Imperial Vrkhazhian Pronouns
! Vrkhazhian
|-
|-
| how? || ''ʾimmamat''
! rowspan="3" |  
! colspan="8" | Independent
! colspan="2" | Bound
|-
|-
| when? || ''naḵ''
! colspan="4" | Nominative
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Accusative
| why? || ''ʾičam''
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Ergative
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Possessive
|}
 
====Relative Pronouns====
The conjugation of the relative pronoun is as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! Number !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive !! Allative !! Ablative
|- align="center"
|-
|-
! '''Masculine singular'''
! colspan="2" | Affirmative
|''noki'' || ''ṇkibi'' ||''sažmi'' ||''ṇkeši'' ||''ṇkati''
! colspan="2" | Negative
|-
|-
!'''Masculine plural'''
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Person
|''ṇkil'' || ''nokbil'' ||''sažmil'' ||''nokšil'' ||''noktil''
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
|-
|-
!'''Feminine singular'''  
! 1st
|''noka'' || ''ṇkiba'' ||''sažma'' ||''ṇkeša'' ||''ṇkata''
| ''āni''
| ''āti''
| ''tunni''
| ''tutti''
| ''nêsi''
| ''têsi''
| ''nêni''
| ''têni''
| ''-ni''
| ''-ti''
|-
|-
!'''Feminine plural'''  
! 2nd
|''ṇkan'' || ''nokban'' ||''sažman'' ||''nokšan'' ||''noktan''
| ''āma''
| ''āman''
| ''tumma''
| ''tumman''
| ''mêsi''
| ''mināsi''
| ''mêni''
| ''mināni''
| ''-mi''
| ''-min''
|-
|-
!'''Neuter singular'''  
! 3rd
|''noku'' || ''ṇkibu'' ||''sažmu'' ||''ṇkešu'' ||''ṇkatu''
| ''āsa''
| ''āsan''
| ''tussa''
| ''tussan''
| ''kêsi''
| ''kināsi''
| ''kêni''
| ''kināni''
| ''-ki''
| ''-kin''
|-
|-
!'''Neuter plural'''
|''ṇkud'' || ''nokbud'' ||''sažmud'' ||''nokšud'' ||''noktud''
|}
|}
The relative pronoun agrees in gender and number with its referent. Additionally it changes the word order of a relative clause to OSV if the referent is an object of a relative clause in the active voice. If the relative clause is in the passive voice then the word order is always changed to SVX.


===Numerals===
Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩.
Cardinal numerals precede the nouns they modify and are placed in the governed state, while ordinal numerals are placed in the absolute state, losing all case endings; cardinal numerals also agree in gender with the noun they modify. An example of this are the nouns ''vakkami'' and ''ʾuldu''; when a numeral is placed before them they become ''tibsi vakkami'' (one king) and ''mastalu ʾuldud'' (six soldiers). The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.   


{| class="wikitable"
|+ Numerals
! Numbers
! Cardinal
(masc.)
! Cardinal
(fem.)
! Cardinal
(neut.)
! Ordinal
(neut.)
|-
! 1
| ''tibsi'' || ''tibsa'' || ''tibsu'' || ''ʾayun''
|-
! 2
| ''sasri'' || ''sasra'' || ''sasru'' || ''hassir''
|-
! 3
| ''lamni'' || ''lamna'' || ''lamnu'' || ''halmin''
|-
! 4
| ''pśedi'' || ''pśeda'' || ''pśedu'' || ''hapśid''
|-
! 5
| ''ẕarsi'' || ''ẕarsa'' || ''ẕarsu'' || ''haẕris''
|-
! 6
| ''mastali'' || ''mastala'' || ''mastalu'' || ''hamastil''
|-
! 7
| ''ʾarami'' || ''ʾarama'' || ''ʾaramu'' || ''haʾrim''
|-
! 8
| ''šalbi'' || ''šalba'' || ''šalbu'' || ''hašlib''
|-
! 9
| ''zapri'' || ''zapra'' || ''zapru'' || ''hazpir''
|-
! X (10)
| ''yagmi'' || ''yagma'' || ''yagmu'' || ''haẏgim''
|-
! E (11)
| ''ḵteli'' || ''ḵtela'' || ''ḵtelu'' || ''haḵtil''
|-
! 10 (12)
| ''sẕeki'' || ''sẕeka'' || ''sẕeku'' || ''hasẕik''
|-
|}


===Syntax===
=====Interrogative and Relative Pronouns=====
{{main|Syntax in Vrkhazhian}}
Vrkhazhian possesses a simple set of interrrogative pronouns that also serve as relative pronouns:
====Nominal phrases====
Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. All adjectives except colours follow the noun. An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ''ṛ-Vakkam Yat-Vṛḵažaẇ, ʾIḥmeki ʾAraš-Hijun, tutṗusu ḡalak numḥaḥ.'' "Ihmeki Arash-Hijun, the Emperor of Vrkhazh, united his people" which is analyzed in the following table:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Imperial Vrkhazhian Interrogative Adjectives
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Feminine
! colspan="2" | Masculine
! colspan="2" | Neuter
! colspan="2" | Inanimate
|-
|-
!Word
!Meaning
!Analysis
!Part of the nominal phrase
|-
|-
| ''ṛ-Vakkam'' || emperor || nominative construct state || rowspan='2' valign='middle' | Apposition
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Singular
! style="width: 4.2em;" | Plural
|-
|-
| ''Yat-Vṛḵažaẇ'' || Vrkhazh || genitive neuter genitive singular
! style="width: 7em;" rowspan="4" | "Who / What"
! style="width: 6em;" | Nominative
| ''ḫamt-um''
| ''ḫamt-ūwa''
| ''ḫamt-im''
| ''ḫamt-īya''
| ''ḫamt-am''
| ''ḫamt-āya''
| rowspan="2" | ''ḫamt-as''
| rowspan="2" | ''ḫamt-āsa''
|-
|-
| ''ʾIḥmeki ʾAraš-Hijun'' || Ihmeki Arash-Hijun || masculine singular || Proper Noun (subject)
! Accusative
| ''ḫamt-us''
| ''ḫamt-ūsa''
| ''ḫamt-is''
| ''ḫamt-īsa''
| ''ḫamt-as''
| ''ḫamt-āsa''
|-
|-
| ''tutṗusu'' || people || accusative neuter singular || rowspan='3' valign='middle' | Relative clause
! Ergative
| ''ḫamt-un''
| ''ḫamt-ūna''
| ''ḫamt-in''
| ''ḫamt-īna''
| ''ḫamt-an''
| ''ḫamt-āna''
| ''ḫamt-an''
| ''ḫamt-āna''
|-
|-
| ''ḡalak'' || his || third person genitive masculine singular
! Genitive
| ''ḫamt-uḫ''
| ''ḫamt-ūwa''
| ''ḫamt-iḫ''
| ''ḫamt-īya''
| ''ḫamt-aḫ''
| ''ḫamt-āya''
| ''ḫamt-aḫ''
| ''ḫamt-āya''
|-
|-
| ''numḥaḥ'' || unite || active past singular
! colspan="10" |  
|-
|-
|}
! rowspan="4" | "How Many"
 
! Nominative
====Sentence syntax====
| ''???''
There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Oblique (VSX). Compare an active sentence:
| ''???''
 
| ''???''
:'''ʾEšol ṛ-ʾuldud ṛ-t-ʾeldud ʾuldam.'''
| ''???''
{| class="wikitable"
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| Align="center" | ''ʾEšol'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-ʾuldud'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-t-ʾeldud'' || Align="center" | ''ʾuldam''  
! Accusative
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| All || Align="center" | DEF=soldier-NOM.NEUT.PL || Align="center" | DEF=ACC-civilian-NEUT.PL || Align="center" | guard\ACT.PRES-PL
! Ergative
|}
| ''???''
:"All of the soldiers guard the civilians."
| ''???''
 
| ''???''
vs. a passive sentence:
| ''???''
 
| ''???''
:'''Nikšemam ṛ-makšimud ṛ-maśkafud ʾim Hiqala.'''
| ''???''
{| class="wikitable"
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| Align="center" | ''Nikšemam'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-makšimud'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-maśkafud'' || Align="center" | ''ʾim'' || Align="center" | ''Hiqala''
! Genitive
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| PASS.PST-build\PASS-PL || Align="center" | DEF=golem-NOM.NEUT.PL || Align="center" | DEF-mercury || Align="center" | by || Align="center" | Hiqala-FEM.SG
|}
|}
:"The mercury golems were built by Hiqala"


The verb root '''ʾ-l-d''' (to guard), in the first example, is conjugated for active past singular in the active sentence agreeing in number with the subject "soldiers", while the verb root '''k-š-m''' (to build [physical]) in the second example is conjugated in the passive past plural, agreeing in number with the subject "the mercury golems".
===Numerals===
Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩.


==Writing System==
Numerals behave like noun/pronouns.
The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka [axβa jatβɹ̩xaʝae̯ka]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 33 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 6 vowel diacritics.
The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.


===History===
The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.    
The script has been in use for at least 950 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The script is a descendant of the Proto-Vrkhazhian logographic script.


===Letter names===
{| class="wikitable"
====Standard letters====
|+ Numbers
The table below lists the 33 letters of the Akhuva:
|-
{|
! Glyph
|
! Numeral
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
! Cardinal
|+ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
! Ordinal
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
! [[File:Ayn.PNG|30px|Tibsa]]
! 1
| ''tibsas''
| ''tabbas-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Alakh.PNG|30px|ʾAlaḵ]] || ʾAlaḵ || wind, breath || '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
! [[File:Nim.PNG|30px|Susra]]
! 2
| ''śiṭṭas''
| ''śaddaṭ-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Khav.PNG|30px|Ḵav]] || Ḵav || human || '''ḵ''' [x]
!
! 3
| ''miḫlas''
| ''maḫḫal-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Vav2.PNG|30px|Vav]] || Vav || cane || '''v''' [β]
!
! 4
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Hith.PNG|30px|Hit]] || Hit || lock || '''h''' [h]
!
! 5
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Dat.PNG|30px|Dat]] || Dat || skull || '''d''' [d]
!
! 6
| ''taftas''
| ''taffat-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Tsim.PNG|30px|Ẕim]] || Ẕim || fruit, blood || '''ẕ''' [t͡s]
!
! 7
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Bal.PNG|30px|Bal]] || Bal || path || '''b''' [b]
!
! 8
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Sum.PNG|30px|Sum]] || Sum || tunnel || '''s''' [s]
!
! 9
| ''nuḫras''
| ''naḫḫar-''
|-
|-
| [[File:Zhat.PNG|30px|Žat]] || Žat || helmet || '''ž''' [ʝ]
!
! X
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Tham.PNG|30px|Ṭam]] || Ṭam || horn, curve || '''ṭ''' [θ]
!
! E
| ''???''
| ''???''
|-
|-
| [[File:Yav.PNG|30px|Yav]] || Yav || scythe || '''y''' [j]
!
! 10
| ''ḫarṭas''
| ''ḫarraṭ-''
|}
|}
|
 
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
===Syntax===
|+ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
{{main|Syntax in Vrkhazhian}}
====Nominal phrases====
Noun phrases have the following overall order: (numeral) noun (genitive noun) (adjective/relative clause) (demonstratives)
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
| Align="center" | ''śimās'' || Align="center" | ''aḫās''
|-
|-
| [[File:Kah.PNG|30px|Kaf]] || Kaf || water || '''k''' [k]
| house-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Ge.PNG|30px|Geb]] || Geb || wing || '''g''' [g]
| Align="center" colspan='2'| this house
|-
|-
| [[File:Lam.PNG|30px|Lam]] || Lam || hand || '''l''' [l]
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[File:Ma'.PNG|30px|Maʾ]] || Maʾ || bowl, cup || '''m''' [m]
| Align="center" | ''śimās'' || Align="center" | ''mannabās'' || Align="center" | ''aḫās''
|-
|-
| [[File:Nesh.PNG|30px|Neš]] || Neš || peace || '''n''' [n]
| house-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span> || beautiful-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.pl</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Ghaym.PNG|30px|Ḡaẏm]] || Ḡaẏm || name || '''ḡ''' [ɣ]
| Align="center" colspan='3'| these beautiful houses
|-
|-
| [[File:Phas.PNG|30px|Ṗas]] || Ṗas || poison || '''ṗ''' [ɸ~ʍ̝~w̝]
|}
Numerals behave like nouns, thus when they are used to quantify another noun they are placed in the construct state. In turn, determiners and adjectives agree in gender and number with the numeral rather than the possessing noun.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[File:Pak.PNG|30px|Pak]] || Pak || head || '''p''' [p]
| Align="center" | ''tufta'' || Align="center" | ''śimāḫ'' || Align="center" | ''aḫas''
|-
|-
| [[File:Jim.PNG|30px|Jim]] || Jim || pillar || '''j''' [ɟ]
| six-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || house-<span class="smallcaps">gen.inan.pl</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Ru.PNG|30px|Ruḡ]] || Ruḡ || snake || '''r''' [ɹ]
| Align="center" colspan='3'| these six houses
|-
|-
| [[File:Fash.PNG|30px|Faš]] || Faš || vulture || '''f''' [ɸ]
|}
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
|-
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
| Align="center" | ''tufta'' || Align="center" | ''śimāḫ'' || Align="center" | ''mannabas'' || Align="center" | ''aḫas''
|-
|-
| [[File:Shim.PNG|30px|Šim]] || Šim || house || '''š''' [ç]
| six-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || house-<span class="smallcaps">gen.inan.pl</span> || beautiful-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.fem.sg</span> || this-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Waj.PNG|30px|Wad]] || Wad || shield || '''w''' [w]
| Align="center" colspan='4'| these six beautiful houses
|-
|-
| [[File:Tlon.PNG|30px|Ćon]] || Ćon || fish || '''ć''' [t͡ɬ]
|}
Relative clauses are made by infixing '''-ēs-''' to the verb subject suffix of the relative clause:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[File:Tal.PNG|30px|Tal]] || Tal || gate || '''t''' [t]
| Align="center" | ''ḳebbis'' || Align="center" | ''assalmabakki'' || Align="center" | ''māˀaḫtēsi''
|-
|-
| [[File:Rhash.PNG|30px|Ṟaš]] || Ṟaš || shoulder || '''ṟ''' [ʀ]
| king-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.sg</span> || people\<span class="smallcaps">cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut-</span>put_together<span class="smallcaps">-3ms.rel</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Chi.PNG|30px|Čit]] || Čit || hook || '''č''' [c]
| Align="center" colspan='3'| a king who united his people
|-
|-
| [[File:Zab.PNG|30px|Zab]] || Zab || branch || '''z''' [z]
|}
Relative clauses can also be made by the use of the interrogative pronoun '''arr-''' "(the one) who", agreeing in number and gender with the main clause's referent.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[File:Rhat.PNG|30px|Řat]] || Řat || fear, tail || '''ř''' [r]
| Align="center" | ''assalmabas'' || Align="center" | ''arras'' || Align="center" | ''ḳebbis'' || Align="center" | ''māˀaḫti''
|-
|-
| [[File:Lham.PNG|30px|Śam]] || Śam || tree || '''ś''' [ɬ]
| king-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.sg</span> || who-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span>|| people\<span class="smallcaps">cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut-</span>put_together<span class="smallcaps">-3ms</span>
|-
|-
| [[File:Qhak.PNG|30px|Ḥak]] || Ḥak || roof || '''ḥ''' [χ]
| Align="center" colspan='4'| the people who the king united
|-
|-
| [[File:Qar.PNG|30px|Qut]] || Qut || sheep || '''q''' [q]
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵva Yat-Vṛḵažaẏka
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
|-
| [[File:Nhod.PNG|30px|Ṉod]] || Ṉod || ear || '''ṉ''' [ɴ]
|}
|}
|}


====Vowel diacritics====
{| class="wikitable"
The Akhuva is an abjad, thus vowels are not represented in most texts. However, vowel diacritics may be used to aid learners in reading the text and to reduce ambiguities.
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Mambinud Yat-Vṛḵažaẏkud
|-
! Letter
! Name
! Meaning
! Phoneme
|-
| [[File:Ah.PNG|30px|Maʾlibu]]
| Maʾlibu
| exposed
| '''a''' [a]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Ee.PNG|30px|Mařkiku]]
| Align="center" | ''ummuḫdas'' || Align="center" | ''arras'' || Align="center" | ''ku'' || Align="center" | ''rabdāmūs'' || Align="center" | ''taḳūstan''
| Mařkiku
| fallen
|'''e''' [e̞]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Eh.PNG|30px|Yatu]]
| palace-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || who-<span class="smallcaps">nom/acc.inan.sg</span> || at || guards-<span class="smallcaps">nom.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">futi</span>-lie_down-<span class="smallcaps">3fp</span>
| Yatu
| ground
|'''i''' [i]
 
|-
| [[File:Oh.PNG|30px|Ḵoṭu]]
| Ḵoṭu
| circle
| '''o''' [o̞]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Oo.PNG|30px|Muḵepu]]
| Align="center" colspan='5'| the palace where guards might reside
| Ṃḵepu
| emptiness
| '''ə''' [ə]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Uu.PNG|30px|Ḥmolu]]
| Ḥmolu
| throne
| '''u''' [u]
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
====Sentence syntax====
|+???
The basic word order of Vrkhazhian is SOV. Vrkhazhian has two primary voices, active and applicative:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Letter
| Align="center" | ''aldāmīs''  || Align="center" | ''ilgūn'' || Align="center" | ''amtan''
! Name
! Phoneme
|-
|-
| [[File:Yay.PNG|30px|ʾAẇdu Yav]]
| warrior-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.pl</span> || fish-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut</span>-eat\<span class="smallcaps">act</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span>
| ʾAẇdu Yav
| '''ẏ''' [e̯]
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Waw.PNG|30px|ʾAẇdu Wad]]
| Align="center" colspan='3' | The warriors ate some fish
| ʾAẇdu Wad
|}
| '''ẇ''' [o̯]


|}
{| class="wikitable"
 
====Numerals====
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Ḥalkud Yat-Vṛḵažaẏku
|-
|-
! Numeral
| Align="center" | ''aldāmīs'' || Align="center" | ''ḫagrākan'' || Align="center" | ''ilgūn'' || Align="center" | ''āˀamtan''
! Number
! Name
|-
|-
| [[File:Sxan.PNG|30px|Šemt-]]
| warrior-<span class="smallcaps">nom.masc.pl</span> || dog-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span> || fish-<span class="smallcaps">acc.fem.pl</span> || <span class="smallcaps">nfut</span>-eat\<span class="smallcaps">appl</span>-<span class="smallcaps">3mp</span>
| 0
| Šemt- ("none")
 
|-
|-
| [[File:Ayn.PNG|30px|Tibs-]]
| Align="center" colspan='4' | The warriors fed their dogs some fish
| 1
|}
| Tibs-
 
|-
| [[File:Nim.PNG|30px|Sasr-]]
| 2
| Sasr-


|-
| [[File:Daj.PNG|30px|Lamn-]]
| 3
| Lamn-


|-
The verb root '''ñ-m''' (to eat), in the first example, is conjugated for active nonfuture masculine plural in the active sentence agreeing in number and gender with the subject "warriors", while the same verb root in the second example is conjugated in the passive nonfuture feminine plural, agreeing in number and gender with the subject "fish".
| [[File:Hat.PNG|30px|Pśed-]]
| 4
| Pśed-
 
|-
| [[File:Azha.PNG|30px|Ẕars-]]
| 5
| Ẕars-
 
|-
| [[File:Apeth.PNG|30px|Mastal-]]
| 6
| Mastal-
 
|-
| [[File:Aram.PNG|30px|ʾAram-]]
| 7
| ʾAram-
 
|-
| [[File:Shab.PNG|30px|Šalb-]]
| 8
| Šalb-
 
|-
| [[File:Adik.PNG|30px|Zapr-]]
| 9
| Zapr-
 
|-
| [[File:Yam.PNG|30px|Yagm-]]
| 10/X
| Yagm-
 
|-
| [[File:Ijith.PNG|30px|Ḵtel-]]
| 11/E
| Ḵtel-
 
|}


==Writing System==
==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
==Example text==
==Example text==
[[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A_priori_conlangs]] [[Category:Vrkhazh]]
[[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A_priori_conlangs]] [[Category:Vrkhazh]]
</big>

Latest revision as of 16:21, 1 November 2024

Vrkhazhian (Śād Warḫāsaḫ "Mouth of Vrkhazh") is a language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhians who live in Warḫāsam.



VrkhazhianFlagSRLT.png
Vrkhazhian
Śād Warḫāsaḫ, Warḫāsāli
Pronounced: [ˈɬɑːd wɑr.ˈxɑː.sɑx], [wɑr.xɑː.ˈsɑː.li]
Spoken: Vrkhazh (Warḫāsam)
Writing system: Añmānas
Genealogy: Proto-Ch'ahdic
Proto-A
Proto-AA
Proto-AAA
Old Vrkhazhian
Imperial Vrkh.
Common Vrkh.
Typology
Morphological type: agglutinative, triconsonantal root-based morphology
Morphosyntactic alignment: nominative-accusative
Basic word order: Free word order, but typically verb-initial
Credits
Creator: Malcolm G. Holborne


History

Registers

Vrkhazhian is divided into two primary registers:

  • Imperial Vrkhazhian (Ḳabbāˀas "The Royal [Speech]") is the written variety of Vrkhazhian based upon a dialect of Old Vrkhazhian spoken by the founder of the Empire, Ezu-Nardikh the Great, and his supporters.
  • Common Vrkhazhian (Lumbāˀas "The Common [Speech]") is the spoken variety based around the dialect of the capital city of Uzur.

Phonology

Consonants

The table below shows the 25 consonant phonemes found in Vrkhazhian. Letters in angle brackets indicate where the romanization of the phoneme differs from its IPA representation.

Bilabial Coronal Velar Glottal
Central Lateral
Nasal m n ŋ ⟨n̮⟩
Stop Voiceless p t k ʔ ⟨ˀ⟩
Ejective pʼ ⟨ṗ⟩ tʼ ⟨ṭ⟩ kʼ ⟨ḳ⟩
Voiced b d g
Fricative Voiceless f s ɬ ⟨ś⟩ x ⟨ḫ⟩
Ejective sʼ ⟨ṣ⟩ ɬʼ ⟨ṣ́⟩
Voiced z ɮ ⟨ź⟩
Liquid r l
Semivowel w j ⟨y⟩

All consonants except for /j w ʔ/ can be geminated (pronounced twice as long) which is indicated in writing by simply doubling the letter.

Vowels

Vrkhazhian possesses the following monophthongs:

Front Back
Close i iː u uː
Open ɛ ɛː ɑ ɑː

The short vowels /ɛ ɑ i u/ are represented in writing as ⟨e a i u⟩ while the long vowels /ɛː ɑː iː uː/ are either represented with a macron ⟨ē, ā, ī, ū⟩ or a circumflex ⟨ê, â, î, û⟩. The usage of a circumflex in writing is to indicate vowel coalescence as a result of the contraction of the weak consonants /ʔ j w/.

Allophony

Plosives

  • The plosives /p b t d k g/ assimilate in voicing when they precede a plosive of the same place of articulation. An example of this allophony is demonstrated with the verb alad- "fight, oppose": under normal circumstances its stem is alad- such as in aladna "I fought, I opposed"; however, when, for example, the first person plural subject suffix -ta is added, it becomes alatta "we fought, we opposed"
  • The plosives /p b t d k g/ also assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede fricatives of the same place of articulation

Nasals

  • ???

Fricatives

  • the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ assimilate in voice and manner of articulation when they precede another fricative of the same place of articulation.
  • the fricatives /s z ɬ ɮ/ become affricates word-initially.

Other

  • The velar consonants /ŋ k g x/ become partially-rounded [ŋ͗ k̹ g͗ x̹] or fully-rounded [ŋʷ kʷ gʷ xʷ] before back vowels.

Symmetrical Assimilation

Components Result
b + p pp
m + p
p + b bb
m + b
Components Result
d + t tt
n + t
t + d dd
n + d
Components Result
g + k kk
n̮ + k
k + g gg
n̮ + g

Asymmetrical Assimilation

Components Result
p + f ff
b + f
m + f
Components Result
t + s ss
d + s
n + s
t + z zz
d + z
n + z
Components Result
t + ś śś
d + ś
n + ś
t + ź źź
d + ź
n + ź
Components Result
k + ḫ ḫḫ
g + ḫ
n̮ + ḫ

Syllable Structure and Prosody

The basic syllable structure is maximally (C)V(V)(C) whereby any syllable can begin with any consonant except for /ʔ/ and any syllable can end with any consonant except for /ʔ j w/. Vrkhazhian strongly dislikes consonant clusters in the onset or coda of a syllable and typically inserts vowels to break the offending clusters. The epenthetic vowels typically mirror the adjacent vowel.

Stress in Vrkhazhian is based on syllable weight, of which there are three degrees: light (V, CV); heavy (CVC, CV̄, CV̂), and superheavy (CV̄C, CV̂C).

Grammar

Morphology

Overview

Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting language, and morphologically, it is a triconsonatal root language: a kind of non-concatenative morphology whereby its roots consist of an abstract set of consonants which a pattern of vowels called transfixes are placed between. Most of these roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two-letter (biliteral) and four-letter (quadriliteral) roots. Very rare, however, are five-letter (pentaliteral) roots, all of which are entirely nouns.

Nominal morphology

Main article: Nouns in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian nouns are called ğanūm (singular ğanum). They are declined for case, gender, and number. Specifically there are four cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative) and two numbers (singular and plural). Additionally, Vrkhazhian has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. When referring to humans, deities, and certain animals, masculine refers to beings and animals of the male sex as well as beings that identify with the male gender while feminine refers to beings and animals of the female sex as well as beings that identify with the female gender. When referring to non-humans, masculine refers to wild or dangerous animals (e.g. sammali "crocodile") or inanimate non-living things (e.g. adgi "sand") while feminine refers to domesticated or safe animals (e.g. ḫusu "horse") or more animate non-living things (e.g. masû "sea").

Verbal morphology

Main article: Verbs in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian verbs are called narībūm (singular narībum). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root, though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active and passive). There are only two tenses (future and non-future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. Additionally, there are also two moods (indicative and subjunctive) although the indicative is unmarked. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix -am.

When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb p-r-ḫ (to say, to speak). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the first person singular realis, it is called paruḫna because that is the first person singular realis form of the verb.

Adjectival morphology

Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender, case, and number in agreement with the noun they modify.

Most adjectives are derived from verbs and take the form C₁aC₂C₂aC₃. Below is an example adjective derived from the verb s-g-l (to be old) with the meaning of "old":

s-g-l (to be old)
Nominative Accusative Genitive
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Masculine saggal-im saggal-īm saggal-is saggal-īs saggal-in saggal-īn
Feminine saggal-um saggal-ūm saggal-us saggal-ūs saggal-un saggal-ūn
Neuter saggal-as saggal-ās saggal-as saggal-ās saggal-aḫ saggal-āḫ
Demonstrative Adjectives

Like English, Vrkhazhian makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these' known as "proximal") and far ('that, those' known as "distal") demonstrative expressions. Besides number, as in English, Vrkhazhian also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender as well as case.

Proximal Demonstrative ("this", "these")
Feminine Masculine Neuter Inanimate
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative aḫḫ-um aḫḫ-ūwa aḫḫ-im aḫḫ-īya aḫḫ-am aḫḫ-āya aḫḫ-as aḫḫ-āsa
Accusative aḫḫ-us aḫḫ-ūsa aḫḫ-is aḫḫ-īsa aḫḫ-as aḫḫ-āsa
Ergative aḫḫ-un aḫḫ-ūna aḫḫ-in aḫḫ-īna aḫḫ-an aḫḫ-āna aḫḫ-an aḫḫ-āna
Genitive aḫḫ-uḫ aḫḫ-ūwa aḫḫ-iḫ aḫḫ-īya aḫḫ-aḫ aḫḫ-āya aḫḫ-aḫ aḫḫ-āya
Distal Demonstrative ("that", "those")
Feminine Masculine Neuter Inanimate
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative idd-um idd-ūwa idd-im idd-īya idd-am idd-āya idd-as idd-āsa
Accusative idd-us idd-ūsa idd-is idd-īsa idd-as idd-āsa
Ergative idd-un idd-ūna idd-in idd-īna idd-an idd-āna idd-an idd-āna
Genitive idd-uḫ idd-ūwa idd-iḫ idd-īya idd-aḫ idd-āya idd-aḫ idd-āya

Pronouns

Imperial Vrkhazhian Pronouns
Independent Bound
Nominative Accusative Ergative Possessive
Affirmative Negative
Person Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st āni āti tunni tutti nêsi têsi nêni têni -ni -ti
2nd āma āman tumma tumman mêsi mināsi mêni mināni -mi -min
3rd āsa āsan tussa tussan kêsi kināsi kêni kināni -ki -kin


Interrogative and Relative Pronouns

Vrkhazhian possesses a simple set of interrrogative pronouns that also serve as relative pronouns:

Imperial Vrkhazhian Interrogative Adjectives
Feminine Masculine Neuter Inanimate
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
"Who / What" Nominative ḫamt-um ḫamt-ūwa ḫamt-im ḫamt-īya ḫamt-am ḫamt-āya ḫamt-as ḫamt-āsa
Accusative ḫamt-us ḫamt-ūsa ḫamt-is ḫamt-īsa ḫamt-as ḫamt-āsa
Ergative ḫamt-un ḫamt-ūna ḫamt-in ḫamt-īna ḫamt-an ḫamt-āna ḫamt-an ḫamt-āna
Genitive ḫamt-uḫ ḫamt-ūwa ḫamt-iḫ ḫamt-īya ḫamt-aḫ ḫamt-āya ḫamt-aḫ ḫamt-āya
"How Many" Nominative ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
Accusative ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
Ergative ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
Genitive ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

Numerals

Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩.

Numerals behave like noun/pronouns.

The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.

Numbers
Glyph Numeral Cardinal Ordinal
Tibsa 1 tibsas tabbas-
Susra 2 śiṭṭas śaddaṭ-
3 miḫlas maḫḫal-
4 ??? ???
5 ??? ???
6 taftas taffat-
7 ??? ???
8 ??? ???
9 nuḫras naḫḫar-
X ??? ???
E ??? ???
10 ḫarṭas ḫarraṭ-

Syntax

Main article: Syntax in Vrkhazhian

Nominal phrases

Noun phrases have the following overall order: (numeral) noun (genitive noun) (adjective/relative clause) (demonstratives)

śimās aḫās
house-nom/acc.inan.sg this-nom/acc.inan.sg
this house
śimās mannabās aḫās
house-nom/acc.inan.pl beautiful-nom/acc.inan.pl this-nom/acc.inan.pl
these beautiful houses

Numerals behave like nouns, thus when they are used to quantify another noun they are placed in the construct state. In turn, determiners and adjectives agree in gender and number with the numeral rather than the possessing noun.

tufta śimāḫ aḫas
six-nom/acc.inan.sg house-gen.inan.pl this-nom/acc.inan.sg
these six houses
tufta śimāḫ mannabas aḫas
six-nom/acc.inan.sg house-gen.inan.pl beautiful-nom/acc.fem.sg this-nom/acc.inan.sg
these six beautiful houses

Relative clauses are made by infixing -ēs- to the verb subject suffix of the relative clause:

ḳebbis assalmabakki māˀaḫtēsi
king-nom.masc.sg people\cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl nfut-put_together-3ms.rel
a king who united his people

Relative clauses can also be made by the use of the interrogative pronoun arr- "(the one) who", agreeing in number and gender with the main clause's referent.

assalmabas arras ḳebbis māˀaḫti
king-nom.masc.sg who-nom/acc.inan.sg people\cons.inan.sg-3ms.obl nfut-put_together-3ms
the people who the king united
ummuḫdas arras ku rabdāmūs taḳūstan
palace-nom/acc.inan.sg who-nom/acc.inan.sg at guards-nom.fem.pl futi-lie_down-3fp
the palace where guards might reside

Sentence syntax

The basic word order of Vrkhazhian is SOV. Vrkhazhian has two primary voices, active and applicative:

aldāmīs ilgūn amtan
warrior-nom.masc.pl fish-acc.fem.pl nfut-eat\act-3mp
The warriors ate some fish
aldāmīs ḫagrākan ilgūn āˀamtan
warrior-nom.masc.pl dog-acc.fem.pl-3mp fish-acc.fem.pl nfut-eat\appl-3mp
The warriors fed their dogs some fish


The verb root ñ-m (to eat), in the first example, is conjugated for active nonfuture masculine plural in the active sentence agreeing in number and gender with the subject "warriors", while the same verb root in the second example is conjugated in the passive nonfuture feminine plural, agreeing in number and gender with the subject "fish".

Writing System

Vocabulary

Example text

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