ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaž

Vrkhazhian (ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaž) is a Western Hašakam language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhi who live in the Empire of Yat-Vṛḵaž. The earliest form of this language, known as Classical Vrkhazhian, was spoken as early as 950 years ago.

Vrkhazhian ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaž
Pronounced:	/ʔaçˈdu jatβɹ̩ˈxaʝ/
Spoken:	Vrkhazh (Yat-Vṛḵaẕ)
Writing system:	ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam
Genealogy:	Haṣákaṃ Languages Himoshian Taksheyut Pre-Vrkhazhian Classical Vrkhazhian Modern Vrkhazhian
Typology
Morphological type:	highly fusional, weakly agglutinative
Morphosyntactic alignment:	nominative-accusative
Basic word order:	SOV/VSX
Credits
Creator:	Malcolm G. Holborne

History

Dialects

Vrkhazhian has two major dialects and several minor dialects. The area of the two dialects are divided by two distinct sides; the north-eastern portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Mukhebic, while the south-western portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Uzerian. The numerous smaller dialects are spread in and around these two halves with varying degrees of density.

The table below lists the two major dialects:

Dialects of Vrkhazhian

Dialect	Location
Uzerian	South-West Vrkhazh (originating from the city of ʾUzer)
Mukhebic	North-East Vrkhazh (originating from the city of Muḵeb)

Mukhebic is considered the dialect of business and trading, and originated from Mukheb, and along with Qazhd, make up the Pillars of Trade and Commerce. Uzerian is considered the dialect of politics and military affairs, originating from Uzer, the Capital City where the Emperor or Empress resides. When conducting business and trading with others, it is expected to communicate in the Mukhebic dialect while the Uzerian dialect is used for everything involving politics and the military. The knowledge and fluency of both dialects is a must for any meaningful life in the Vrkhazhian Empire.

Phonology

Consonants

The table below shows the 37 consonant phonemes found in the Uzerian dialect of Vrkhazhian:

Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Nasal		m [m]	n [n]			ṉ [ɴ]
Stop	Light	p͛ [ʰp]	t͛ [ʰt]		k͛ [ʰk]	q͛ [ʰq]
	Plain	p [p] b [b]	t [t] d [d]		k [k] g [g]	q [q]	ʾ [ʔ]
	Dark	ṗ [pʶ]	ṭ [tʶ]
Affricate			ẕ [t͡s]	č [c͡ç] j [ɟ͡ʝ]
Fricative		f [ɸ] v [β]	s [s] z [z]	š [ç] ž [ʝ]	ḵ [x] ḡ [ɣ]	ḥ [χ]	h [h]
Approximant			r [ɹ]	y [j]	w [w]
Trill			ř [r]			ṟ [ʀ~ʁ]
Lateral Approximant			l [l]
Lateral Fricative				ś [ʎ̝̊]

Where consonants appear in pairs, the left is voiceless and the right is voiced.

Vowels

	Front	Near- front	Central	Near- back	Back
Close	i u e̞ ə o̞ a
Near-close
Close-mid
Mid
Open-mid
Near-open
Open

The vowel phoneme /a/ is analyzed as being a continuum of open vowels ranging from front to back that are in free variation.

Romanization of Vowel Phonemes

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i [i]		u [u]
Mid	e [e̞]	ə [ə]	o [o̞]
Open	a [a]

Vrkhazhian Diphthongs

IPA	Letter	Example
ae̯	aẏ	eye , pie
ao̯	aẇ	cow, out
ɛo̯	eẇ	mayonaise

Allophony

• The alveolar stop consonants /t d/ become [θ ð] in word-final positions after front vowels.
• The velar stop consonants /k g/ are assimilated into /q/ near /q ʰq ɴ χ/.
• The nasal consonants /n ɴ/ are analyzed as [n] before alveolar consonants, [ɲ] before palatal consonants, [ŋ] before velar consonants (including /w/), and [ɴ] before uvular consonants.
• The vowels /a i ə u/ are lowered to [ɑ e̞ ɐ o̞] if they occur after /q ʰq ɴ χ/.

Syllable Structure

The syllable structure of Vrkhazhian is analyzed as (C)C(V)(C)(C), where C stands for a consonant, V stands for a vowel. The consonants ⟨r m n⟩ also have syllabic counterparts /ɹ̩ m̩ n̩/ which are romanized as ⟨ṛ ṃ ṇ⟩.

Words cannot have a vowel hiatus, so an epenthetic /h/ is added between the two vowels.

Onset

The follow table lists the possible consonants that can occur as the onset:

Nasal: /m/, /n/, /ɴ/

Stop: /p/, /ʰp/, /pʶ/, /b/, /t/, /ʰt/, /tʶ/, /d/, /k/, /ʰk/, /g/, /q/, /ʰq/, /ʔ/

Stop plus Nasal: /dm/, /km/, /gm/, /qm/

Stop plus Stop: /pt/, /pʔ/, /bd/, /tp/, /tʔ/, /db/, /kp/, /kb/, /kt/, /kd/, /kʔ/, /gb/, /gd/, /gʔ/

Stop plus /j w/: /kj/, /gj/, /ʔj/ /kw/, /gw/, /qw/, /ʔw/

Stop plus Fricative: /kɸ/, /gβ/, /kç/, /gʝ/

Stop plus Liquid: /pɹ/, /tɹ/, /kɹ/, /qɹ/ /pr/, /br/, /kr/, /gr/, /qr/, /pʀ/, /tʀ/, /kʀ/, /qʀ/, /pl/, /ql/

Affricate: /t͡s/, /c͡ç/, /ɟ͡ʝ/

Fricative: /ɸ/, /β/, /s/, /z/, /ç/, /ʝ/, /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, h/

Fricative plus Nasal: /sm/, /zm/, /sn/, /zn/

Fricative plus Stop: /zb/, /zg/, /xp/, /xt/, /ɣb/, /ɣd/

Fricative plus Affricate: /çc͡ç/, /ʝɟ͡ʝ/

Fricative plus Fricative: /sɸ/, /zβ/, /sx/, /zɣ/

Fricative plus /w/: /sw/, /zw/, /çw/, /ʝw/, /xw/, /ɣw/, /χw/

Fricative plus Liquid: /sɹ/, /zɹ/, /çɹ/, /ʝɹ/, /xɹ/, /ɣɹ/, /χɹ/, /ɸr/, /βr/, /xr/, /ɣr/, /χr/, /sʀ/, /zʀ/, /sl/, /zl/, /çl/, /ʝl/, /xl/, /ɣl/, /χl/

Approximant: /j/, /w/

Liquid: /ɹ/, /r/, /ʀ/, /l/, /ʎ̝̊/

Nucleus

Any of the vowels and diphthongs can appear in a syllable as well as the syllabic consonants /ɹ̩ m̩ n̩/

Coda

The following table lists the possible consonants that can occur as the coda:

Nasal: /m/, /n/, /ɴ/

Nasal plus Stop: /mt/, /nt/

Stop: /p/, /ʰp/, /pʶ/, /b/, /t/, /ʰt/, /tʶ/, /d/, /k/, /ʰk/, /g/, /q/, /ʰq/, /ʔ/

Stop plus Stop: /pt/, /kt/

Stop plus Fricative: /kɸ/, /kç/,

Affricate: /t͡s/, /c͡ç/, /ɟ͡ʝ/

Fricative: /ɸ/, /β/, /s/, /z/, /ç/, /ʝ/, /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, h/

Fricative plus Stop: /çt/, /ʝd/, /xp/, /xt/, /xk/, /ɣb/, /ɣd/, /ɣg/

Fricative plus Affricate: /çc͡ç/, /ʝɟ͡ʝ/

Approximant: /j/, /w/

Liquid: /ɹ/, /r/, /ʀ/, /l/, /ʎ̝̊/

Liquid plus Stop: /ɹp/, /ɹb/, /ɹt/, /ɹd/, /ɹk/, /ɹg/, /ɹq/, /rp/, /rb/, /rt/, /rd/, /rk/, /rg/, /rq/, /ʀp/, /ʀb/, /ʀt/, /ʀd/, /ʀk/, /ʀg/, /ʀq/, /lp/, /lb/, /lt/, /ld/, /lk/, /lg/ /lq/

Liquid plus Fricative: /ɹɸ/, /ɹβ/, /ɹs/, /ɹz/, /ɹç/, /ɹʝ/, /ɹx/, /ɹɣ/, /rɸ/, /rβ/, /rç/, /rʝ/, /rx/, /rɣ/, /rχ/, /ls/, /lz/, /lç/, /lʝ/, /lx/, /lɣ/, /lχ/

Stress

Stress is penultimate if the last syllable is open, and ultimate if the last syllable is closed.

Grammar

Morphology

Overview

Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting triconsonantal root language. Most roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two letter (biliteral) roots. Vrkhazhian also recognizes four- and five-letter roots, however, these are uncommon. Between and around these roots various infixes, suffixes, circumfixes and prefixes are used to carry grammatical functions or derive words.

Nominal morphology

Main article: Nouns in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian has three grammatical genders( masculine, feminine and neuter). These genders are strictly semantic, thus most nouns, such as inanimate objects, fall into the category of neuter.

Vrkhazhian has two numbers (singular and plural) and five cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, allative, and ablative). The table below shows the declension of the noun ʾalkad- (soldier).

Noun paradigm

	Noun (masc.)	Noun (fem.)	Noun (neut.)
Nominative singular	ʾalkad-i	ʾalkad-a	ʾalkad-u
Accusative singular	t-ʾalkad-i	t-ʾalkad-a	t-ʾalkad-u
Genitive singular	ʾalkad-aẏ	ʾalkad-a	ʾalkad-aẇ
Allative singular	ʾalkad-eč-i	ʾalkad-eč-a	ʾalkad-eč-u
Ablative singular	ʾalkad-af-i	ʾalkad-af-a	ʾalkad-af-u
Nominative plural	ʾalikd-il	ʾalikd-an	ʾalikd-ud
Accusative plural	t-ʾalikd-il	t-ʾalikd-an	t-ʾalikd-ud
Genitive plural	ʾalikd-iḡ	ʾalikd-aš	ʾalikd-un
Allative plural	ʾalikd-eč-il	ʾalikd-eč-an	ʾalikd-eč-ud
Ablative plural	ʾalikd-af-il	ʾalikd-af-an	ʾalikd-af-ud

Regarding the five cases: the Nominative case marks the subject of an intransitive verb and the agent of a transitive verb while the Accusative case marks the object, or patient, of a transitive verb. The Accusative case is denoted with the prefix "tu" and shortened to "t-" before a glottal stop (which is phonetically omitted word-initially). Next, The Allative case is used to indicate movement towards the marked noun while the Ablative case is used to denote movement away from the marked noun. Lastly, The Genitive case is used to mark the possessor of an object such as "Mark" in the sentence "Mark's cat". Proper nouns such as people and places are not marked with a genitive suffix.

Construct state

Nouns in Vrkhazhian can also be placed in the construct state (status constructus), which is used in genitive constructions to mark the head noun (possessed noun), while the Genitive case is used to mark the dependent (modifying) noun or adjective. Nouns that that are not placed in the construct state are considered to remain in the governed state (status rectus), which is the default state of all nouns. The table below shows the declensions of the noun ʾalkad- placed in the construct state:

Noun paradigm

	Noun (masc.)	Noun (fem.)	Noun (neut.)
Nominative singular	ʾalkad	ʾalkad	ʾalkad
Accusative singular	t-ʾalkad	t-ʾalkad	t-ʾalkad
Genitive singular	ʾalkad-al	ʾalkad-al	ʾalkad-al
Allative singular	ʾalkad-ej	ʾalkad-ej	ʾalkad-ej
Ablative singular	ʾalkad-av	ʾalkad-av	ʾalkad-av
Nominative plural	ʾalikd-om	ʾalikd-om	ʾalikd-om
Nominative plural	t-ʾalikd-om	t-ʾalikd-om	t-ʾalikd-om
Genitive plural	ʾalikd-al-om	ʾalikd-al-om	ʾalikd-al-om
Allative plural	ʾalikd-ej-om	ʾalikd-ej-om	ʾalikd-ej-om
Ablative plural	ʾalikd-av-om	ʾalikd-av-om	ʾalikd-av-om

Monosyllabic nouns are phonetically reduced to ʾaCC when they are placed in the construct state and can be inflected for gender in the singular like in its governed state. Examples of this are the nouns kaf (water) and šim (house) which, when placed in the construct state, are reduced to ʾakfu and ʾašmu.

Adjectival morphology

Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender and number in agreement with the noun they modify. Adjectives follow nouns except for adjectives pertaining to colours, which instead precede the noun. Adjectives are almost entirely derived from verbs, with a few exceptions.

Most adjectives take the form ʾeC₁C₂aC₃, such as this adjective derived from the verb d-n-n (to be heavy):

"Heavy"

	Adjective (masc.)	Adjective (fem.)	Adjective (neut.)
Singular	ʾednan-i	ʾednan-a	ʾednan-u
Plural	ʾednan-il	ʾednan-an	ʾednan-ud

Adjectives pertaining to colours take the form C₁aC₂C₂aC₃, such as this adjective derived from the verb ḵ-r-m (to be white):

"White"

	Adjective (masc.)	Adjective (fem.)	Adjective (neut.)
Singular	ḵarram-i	ḵarram-a	ḵarram-u
Plural	ḵarram-il	ḵarram-an	ḵarram-ud

Adjective pertaining to diseases take the form C₁aC₂awaC₃, such as this adjective derived from s-ḡ-b (to decay, to rot):

"Necrotic"

	Adjective (masc.)	Adjective (fem.)	Adjective (neut.)
Singular	saḡawab-i	saḡawab-a	saḡawab-u
Plural	saḡawab-il	saḡawab-an	saḡawab-ud

Adjectives also have elative counterparts. The elative takes the form C₁aC₂C₁aC₃ and conveys a superlative meaning in most contexts and a comparative meaning in contexts involving comparisons.

"Heavier/heaviest"

	Adjective (masc.)	Adjective (fem.)	Adjective (neut.)
Singular	dandan-i	dandan-a	dandan-u
Plural	dandan-il	dandan-an	dandan-ud

Elative adjectives pertaining to colours are formed by suffixing -it to a colour adjective.

"Whiter/whitest"

	Adjective (masc.)	Adjective (fem.)	Adjective (neut.)
Singular	ḵarram-iti	ḵarram-ita	ḵarram-itu
Plural	ḵarram-itil	ḵarram-itan	ḵarram-itud

Definite marking

Vrkhazhian has a proclitic "ṛ-" that indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something already mentioned or uniquely specified. The clitic is attached to the noun and the adjective(s) that modify the noun.

Verbal morphology

Main article: Verbs in Vrkhazhian

Verbs in Vrkhazhian are conjugated for number (singular and plural), tense (infinitive, past simple, past progressive, present simple, present progressive, and future) and voice (active and passive)

Verb patterns

The table below shows the conjugation of the root d-s-ṟ (to do, to act):

Verb Conjugations

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾedsaṟṟu		to do	ʾedseṟṟi		to be done
Past Simple	nudsaṟ	nudsaṟam	did	nidseṟ	nidseṟam	was done
Past Prog.	yočdan	yodsaṟam	was doing	yedseṟ	yedseṟam	was being done
Present Simple	dusaṟ	dusṟam	do	daseṟ	dasṟam	is done
Present Prog.	hudsaṟ	hudsuṟam	is doing	hidseṟ	hidseṟam	is being done
Future	ʾadsaṟ	ʾadsaṟam	will do	ʾidseṟ	ʾidseṟam	will be done

Verb Conjugations

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation
Infinitive	lodsaṟṟu		to do oneself
Past Simple	nuldosaṟ	nuldosṟam	did oneself
Past Progressive	yoldosaṟ	yoldosṟam	was doing oneself
Present Simple	lodsaṟ	lodsaṟam	do oneself
Present Progressive	huldosaṟ	huldosṟam	is doing oneself
Future	ʾaldosaṟ	ʾaldosṟam	will do oneself

The genitive pronouns are also used to indicate the subject of a verb in a reflexive construction.

Verb moods

Vrkhazhian has five moods other than the indicative mood: jussive, conditional, subjunctive, commissive, and propositive. The table below shows the present tense of the verb s-b-b (to kill)

Verb Mood

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Jussive	wisbab	wisbabam	have to kill	wisbeb	wisbebam	have to be killed
Conditional	mosbab	mosbabam	would kill	mesbeb	mesbebam	would be killed
Subjunctive	bisbab	bisbabam	may kill	bisbeb	bisbebam	may be killed
Commissive	ḵastubab	ḵastubbam	promise to kill	ḵestabeb	ḵestabbam	promise to be killed
Propositive	mimsubab	mimsubbam	should kill	mimsabeb	mimsabbam	should be killed

• The jussive mood is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no subject pronouns or nouns in, it functions as the imperative, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s).
• The conditional mood expresses a hypothetical situation, that is dependent on another set of circumstances.
• The subjunctive mood expresses hypothetical actions or situations, usually in that-clauses.
• The commissive mood expresses a commitment to do something, like a promise or threat.
• The propositive mood express suggestions or propositions.

Weak Verbs

Verbs are considered weak if they contain a hollow consonant (called ʾahaẏwud).

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

In Vrkhazhian, there are 14 pronouns, each of which have their own forms for each of the five cases. In singular and plural, the 2nd and 3rd persons differentiate gender, while the 1st person does not. Instead, the 1st person plural pronouns are distinguished by clusivity: the inclusive 1st person plural includes the speaker and the addressee, while the exclusive 1st person plural excludes the addressee.

Personal Pronouns

		Nominative		Accusative		Genitive		Allative		Ablative
Person		Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st	inclusive	žaẏ "I"	yeš "we"	šadib	ʾažib	šadik	ʾažik	šadiš	ʾažiš	šadit	ʾažit
	exclusive		ṉal "we"		ṉalib		ṉalak		ṉaleš		ṉalat
2nd	masculine	ʾaši "you"	ʾašam "you"	ʾašib	ʾašmib	ʾašak	ʾašmak	ʾačeš	ʾačmeš	ʾačat	ʾačmat
	feminine	ʾata "you"	ʾatam "you"	ʾatib	ʾatmib	ʾatak	ʾatmak	ʾateš	ʾatmeš	ʾatat	ʾatmat
3rd	masculine	ḡal "he"	moz "they"	ḡalib	mozib	ḡalak	mozak	ḡaleš	modeš	ḡalat	modat
	feminine	ḡan "she"	mag "they"	ḡanib	magib	ḡanak	magak	ḡaneš	mageš	ḡanat	magat
	neuter	ḥol "they"	ṗal "they"	ḥolib	ṗalib	ḥolak	ṗalak	ḥoleš	ṗaleš	ḥolat	ṗalat
4th		ʾaḥ "one"		ʾaḥib		ʾaḥak		ʾaqeš		ʾaqat

The 4th person pronoun is a special pronoun that refers to generic or indefinite persons, usually translated as "one". An example of this is in the sentence:

ʾAd ʾaḥ tubedu susal, ʾaḥ ḥolib wiplal.

"If one takes a book, one must give it [back]."

Demonstrative Pronouns

There are three kinds demonstrative pronouns for three kinds of deixis: proximal, medial, and distal. The proximal indicates an object near the speaker, the medial indicates an object near the addressee, and the distal indicates and object away from both the speaker and the addressee. Demonstrative pronouns always mark their referent as definite.

	Deixis
Number	Proximal	Medial	Distal
Singular	ʾib "this"	ʾani "that"	maẏ "that"
Plural	ʾibim "these"	ʾanim "those"	maẏm "those"

Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs

There are four interrogative pronouns and four interrogative adverbs.

Interrogative Pronouns

English	Vrkhazhian
who?	ʾalim
what?	hamat
which?	ʾaqab
how many?	ʾawar

Interrogative Adverbs

English	Vrkhazhian
where?	sahal
how?	ʾim hamat
when?	naḵ
why?	ʾičam

Relative Pronouns

The conjugation of the relative pronoun is as follows:

Number	Nominative	Accusative	Genitive	Allative	Ablative
Masculine singular	noki	ṇkibi	sažmi	ṇkeši	ṇkati
Masculine plural	ṇkil	nokbil	sažmil	nokšil	noktil
Feminine singular	noka	ṇkiba	sažma	ṇkeša	ṇkata
Feminine plural	ṇkan	nokban	sažman	nokšan	noktan
Neuter singular	noku	ṇkibu	sažmu	ṇkešu	ṇkatu
Neuter plural	ṇkad	nokbad	sažmud	nokšud	noktud

The relative pronoun agrees in gender and number with its referent. Additionally it changes the word order of a relative clause to OSV if the referent is an object of a relative clause in the active voice. If the relative clause is in the passive voice then the word order is always changed to SVX.

Numerals

Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩. Cardinal numerals precede the nouns they modify and are placed in the governed state, while ordinal numerals are placed in the absolute state, losing all case endings; cardinal numerals also agree in gender with the noun they modify. An example of this are the nouns vakkami and ʾalkadu (which becomes ʾalikdud in the plural); when a numeral is placed before them they become tibsi vakkami (one king) and mastalu ʾalikdud (six soldiers). The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.

Numerals

Numbers	Cardinal (masc.)	Cardinal (fem.)	Cardinal (neut.)	Ordinal (neut.)
1	tibsi	tibsa	tibsu	ʾayun
2	sasri	sasra	sasru	hassir
3	lamni	lamna	lamnu	halmin
4	pśedi	pśeda	pśedu	hapśid
5	ẕarsi	ẕarsa	ẕarsu	haẕris
6	mastali	mastala	mastalu	hamastil
7	ʾarami	ʾarama	ʾaramu	haʾrim
8	šalbi	šalba	šalbu	hašlib
9	zapri	zapra	zapru	hazpir
X (10)	yagmi	yagma	yagmu	haẏgim
E (11)	ḵteli	ḵtela	ḵtelu	haḵtil
10 (12)	sẕeki	sẕeka	sẕeku	hasẕik

Syntax

Main article: Syntax in Vrkhazhian

Nominal phrases

Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. All adjectives except colours follow the noun. An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ṛ-Vakkam Yat-Vṛḵaž, ʾIḥamek ʾAraš-Hijiẕud, tumeṭaju šujak numḥaḥ. "Arash-Hijitsud Ihamek, the Emperor of Vrkhazh, united his people" which is analyzed in the following table:

Word	Meaning	Analysis	Part of the nominal phrase
ṛ-Vakkam	emperor	nominative construct state	Apposition
Yat-Vṛḵaž	Vrkhazh	unmarked neuter genitive singular
ʾIḥamek ʾAraš-Hijiẕud	Arash-Hijutsud Ihamek	unmarked masculine nominative singular	Proper Noun (subject)
tumeṭaju	people	neuter accusative singular	Relative clause
šujak	his	third person masculine genitive singular
numḥaḥ	unite	active past singular

Sentence syntax

There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Oblique (VSX). Compare an active sentence:

ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalikdud ṛ-t-ʾulludud ʾuldam.

ʾAšol	ṛ-ʾalikdud	ṛ-t-ʾulludud	ʾuldam
All	DEF-soldier-NOM.NEUT.PL	DEF-ACC-civilian-NEUT.PL	guard\ACT.PRES-PL

"All of the soldiers guard the civilians."

vs. a passive sentence:

Nikšemam ṛ-havir ṛ-makšimud ʾim Hiqal.

Nikšemam	ṛ-havir	ṛ-makšimud	ʾim	Hiqal
PST-build\PASS-PL	DEF-mercury	DEF-golem-NOM.NEUT.PL	by	Hiqal-OBL

"The mercury golems were built by Hiqal"

The verb root ʾ-l-d (to guard), in the first example, is conjugated for active past singular in the active sentence agreeing in number with the subject "soldiers", while the verb root k-š-m (to build [physical]) in the second example is conjugated in the passive past plural, agreeing in number with the subject "the mercury golems".

Writing System

The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam [ʔaxuβa jat βɹ̩xaʝikam]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 33 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 6 vowel diacritics. The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.

History

The script has been in use for at least 950 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The script is a descendant of the Proto-Vrkhazhian logographic script.

Letter names

Standard letters

The table below lists the 33 letters of the Akhuva:

ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam Letter Name Meaning Phoneme ʾAlaḵ wind, breath ʾ [ʔ] Ḵav human ḵ [x] Vav cane v [β] Hit lock h [h] Dat skull d [d] Ẕim fruit, blood ẕ [t͡s] Bal path b [b] Sum tunnel s [s] Žat helmet ž [ʝ] Ṭam horn, curve ṭ [tʶ] Yav scythe y [j]

ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam Letter Name Meaning Phoneme Kaf water k [k] Geb wing g [g] Lam hand l [l] Maʾ bowl, cup m [m] Neš peace n [n] Ḡaẏm name ḡ [ɣ] Ṗas poison ṗ [pʶ] Pak head p [p] Jim pillar j [ɟ͡ʝ] Ruḡ snake r [ɹ] Faš vulture f [ɸ]

ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam Letter Name Meaning Phoneme Šim house š [ç] Wad shield w [w] Tal gate t [t] Ṟaš shoulder ṟ [ʀ] Čit hook č [c͡ç] Zab branch z [z] Řat fear, tail ř [rʷ] Śam tree ś [ʎ̝̊] Ḥak roof ḥ [χ] Qaẇt sheep q [q] Ṉod ear ṉ [ɴ]

Vowel diacritics

The Akhuva is an abjad, thus vowels are not represented in most texts. However, vowel diacritics may be used to aid learners in reading the text and to reduce ambiguities.

Mambinud Yat-Vṛḵažikam

Letter	Name	Meaning	Phoneme
	Maʾlibu	exposed	a [a]
	Mařkiku	fallen	e [e̞]
	Yatu	ground	i [i]
	Ḵoṭu	circle	o [o̞]
	Muḵepu	emptiness	ə [ə]
	Ḥmolu	throne	u [u]

Kburad Yat-Vṛḵažikam

Letter	Name	Phoneme
	ʾAẇdu Yav	ẏ [e̯]
	ʾAẇdu Wad	ẇ [o̯]

Numerals

Kiḏifad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam

Numeral	Number	Name
	0	Šemt- ("none")
	1	Tibs-
	2	Sasr-
	3	Lamn-
	4	Pśed-
	5	Ẕars-
	6	Mastal-
	7	ʾAram-
	8	Šalb-
	9	Zapr-
	10/X	Yagm-
	11/E	Ḵtel-