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| == sentence structure == | | == sentence structure == |
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| ''See also'': [[Kala Sentences]]
| | * |
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| * Most sentences in [[Kala]] contain a verb phrase, typically denoting the occurrence of an action. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers. | |
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| * Most sentences also contain at least one noun phrase, typically denoting a person or thing. A noun phrase consists of a noun plus any modifiers.
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| * The two most important noun phrases are the subject and the object. Their exact meaning depends on the choice of verb, but
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| :loosely speaking, the subject is the person or thing that carries out the action, and the object is the person or thing that is directly affected by the action.
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| * [[Kala]] has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles).
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| === word order === | | === word order === |
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| * [[Kala]] phrase structure can be represented as follows: | | * |
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| : ''(temporal adverb) subject-(modifier) (particle) ((object)-(modifier)) verb-(modifier) (particle)''
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| : or, more simply '''SOV'''
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| == parts of speech ==
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| === verbs === | | === verbs === |
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| ''See more'': [[Kala_Verbs|verbs]]
| | * |
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| * A typical verb denotes the occurrence or abandonment of an action (run, stop), a relationship (have, lose), or a state (stand, melt). Most verbs can be reused without change as a noun. If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted. Kala does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. "I ate", "I used to eat", "I have eaten", "I had eaten"). | |
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| ==== tense ====
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| Kala distinguishes three basic tenses; past, present, and future. These are marked '''-ye''', '''-Ø''', and '''tli''' respectively.
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| * '''kam inaye'''
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| : {{sc|3pl}} eat.{{sc|pst}}
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| : ''They ate''.
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| * '''ha yala'''
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| : {{sc|3sg}} go
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| : ''He goes''. / ''He is going''.
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| * '''nanku tanatli'''
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| : {{sc|1pl.recp}} fight.{{sc|fut}}
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| : ''We will/shall fight each other''.
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| ==== modifiers ====
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| Kala uses several modifiers to add nuance and meaning to verbs. Many of the
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| === nouns === | | === nouns === |
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| * Nouns include [[wp:Pronoun|pronouns]], [[wp:Adjective|adjectives]] (nouns of quality), and [[wp:Determiner_(linguistics)|determiners]]. | | * |
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| ==== plurality ====
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| * A countable noun (or "count noun") can be modified by a number, and can accept the plural. Typical countable nouns represent objects that are clearly individual entities, such as houses, cats, and thoughts. For example:
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:400px;"
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| ! || root || usage || example
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| |-
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| | '''-m''' || '''ma''' || general plural || '''tsakam'''<br>houses
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| |-
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| | '''-mha''' || '''ma''' + '''-ha''' || indefinite abundance || '''tsakamha'''<br>many/a lot houses
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| |-
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| | '''-mi''' || '''ma''' + '''-hi''' || indefinite insufficiency || '''tsakami'''<br>few houses
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| |-
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| | '''tli-''' || '''tatli''' || collective plural || '''tlikuma'''<br>sleuth of bears
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| |-
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| | '''-lo''' || '''ma''' || alternative to '''-m''' || '''yamalo'''<br>mountains
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| |}
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| * When modified by a number, general plurals need not be marked. Example:
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| : '''tsaka ta'o''' - Two houses.
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| ==== affect / degree ====
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| * The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''.
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| :Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
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| :Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion
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| * These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
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| :Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
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| ==== comparative / superlative ====
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| * In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
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| *Example
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| : '''taha'u'''
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| : bigger/biggest
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| ::'''tsaka hayo ke nayo taha'u'''
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| :: house {{sc|3sg-poss}} {{sc|obj}} {{sc|1sg-poss}} big-{{sc|aug}}
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| :: ''His house is bigger than mine.''
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| *Example
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| : '''yanaha'''
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| : more yellow/most yellow
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| ::'''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
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| :: {{sc|obj}} flower.{{sc|pl}} {{sc|2sg-poss}} yellow-{{sc|aug}}
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| :: ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
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| ==== gender ====
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| * Nouns do not normally indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, the suffixes '''-ta''' and '''-na''' are used:
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| * '''uma''' - horse
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| : '''umata''' - a male horse, a stallion
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| : '''umana''' - a female horse, a mare
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| ==== pronouns ====
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| * [[Kala]] generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
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| There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
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| |-
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| ! || Agent || Patient || Possessive || Reflexive || Reciprocal
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| |-
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| | {{sc|1sg}}
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| || [[Kala_lexicon#na|'''na''']] || '''ena''' || '''nayo''' || '''na'i''' || ''' '''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|2sg}}
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| || [[Kala_lexicon#ta|'''ta''']] || '''eta''' || '''tayo''' || '''ta'i''' || ''' '''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|3sg}}
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| || [[Kala_lexicon#ha|'''ha''']] || '''eha''' || '''hayo''' || '''ha'i''' || ''' '''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|4sg}}
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| || [[Kala_lexicon#tla|'''tla''']] || '''etla''' || '''tlayo''' || '''tla'i''' || ''' '''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|1pl}}
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| || '''nam''' || '''enam''' || '''namyo''' || '''nami''' || '''nanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|1pl.excl}}
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| || [[Kala_lexicon#na|'''na'am''']] || '''ena'am''' || '''na'amyo''' || '''na'ami''' || '''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|2pl}}
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| || '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tami''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|3pl}}
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| || [[Kala_lexicon#ka|'''kam''']] || '''ekam''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kami''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|4pl}}
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| || '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |-
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| |}
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| ==== correlative pronouns ====
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:900px;"
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| ! || ''query'' || ''proximal'' || ''medial'' || ''distal'' || ''indefinite'' || ''negative'' || ''ambiguous'' || ''universal'' || ''generalized''
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| |-
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| | ''adjective'' || '''ote'''<br>which || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''iha'''<br>some || '''-k'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>any || '''kua'''<br>every || '''ote'''<br>whichever
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| |-
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| | ''person'' || '''ko'''<br>who || '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person (there) || '''hyako'''<br>someone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>anyone || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''teko'''<br>who(m)ever
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| |-
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| | ''thing'' || '''ke'''<br>what || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''hyano'''<br>something || '''nok'''<br>no thing || '''nola'''<br>anything || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''ote'''<br>whatever
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| |-
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| | ''time'' || '''ama'''<br>when || '''ima'''<br>now || '''uama'''<br>then || '''yeme'''<br>then (yon) || '''hyama'''<br>sometime || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>anytime || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''tema'''<br>whenever
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| |-
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| | ''place'' || '''mo'''<br>where || '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemo'''<br>there (away) || '''hyamo'''<br>somewhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>anywhere || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''temo'''<br>wherever
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| |-
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| | ''way'' || '''to'''<br>how || '''yoto'''<br>thus || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''hyato'''<br>somehow || '''tok'''<br>no way || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''heto'''<br>however
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| |-
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| | ''amount'' || '''uku'''<br>how many || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''ok'''<br>none || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''teku'''<br>however much/many
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| |-
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| | ''reason'' || '''nye'''<br>why || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''tenye'''<br>whyever
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| |}
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| * To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and [[Kala_lexicon#ka|'''ka''']] is placed at the end. Example:
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| * '''tam yala''' - ''{{sc|2pl}} go'' - You all are going.
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| : '''ama tam yala ka''' - ''time {{sc|2pl}} go {{sc|q}}'' - When are you all going?
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| == compound sentences (subordinate clauses)== | | == compound sentences (subordinate clauses)== |
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| * ''While he was hunting wolf, he heard a bird singing''. | | * |
| :{|
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| |'''ha''' ||'''naye''' ||'''nya''' ||'''otso''' ||'''tasa''' ||'''ke''' ||'''tsikua''' ||'''apua''' ||'''anuye'''
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| |3{{sc|sg}} ||during ||for ||wolf ||hunt ||{{sc|p}} ||bird ||sing ||hear-{{sc|pst}}
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| |}
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| * If you want good beer, you should make your own beer.
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| * While looking for tubers, I saw a nun in a clearing.
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| * If you ate the toad (which you might have), you might get sick.
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| * If you ate the toad (which you didn't), you would be dead.
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| == adjectives == | | == adjectives == |
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| * [[Kala]] uses verbs instead of having proper adjectives. For example; | | * |
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| * '''na nyota'''
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| : {{sc|1sg}} thirst
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| : ''I am thirsty.''
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| * '''tla kiha'''
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| : {{sc|4sg}} be.tall
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| : ''It is tall.'' (lit: it talls)
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| * '''nam ke punka ketla inaye'''
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| : {{sc|1pl}} {{sc|obj}} fruit be.red eat-{{sc|pst}}
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| : ''We ate the red fruit.''
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| == adverbs == | | == adverbs == |
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| * An adverbial precedes the clause it modifies. | | * |
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| * ''I drank thirstily.''
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| :{|
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| |'''nyotan''' ||'''na''' ||'''inuye'''
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| |-
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| |thirst.{{sc|adv}} ||1{{sc|sg}} ||drink-{{sc|pst}}
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| |}
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| * ''She will sleep quietly.''
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| :{|
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| |'''kyo'an''' ||'''ha''' ||'''mokutli'''
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| |-
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| |quiet.{{sc|adv}} ||3{{sc|sg}} ||sleep-{{sc|fut}}
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| |}
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| == prepositions & conjunctions == | | == prepositions & conjunctions == |
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| === prepositions === | | === prepositions === |
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| * relational | | * |
| # '''taye''' - pertaining to; regarding; about; a matter of
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| # '''te''' - of; from [{{sc|gen}}]
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| # '''mahe''' - approximately; around; close to
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| # '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by; furnished with]; together
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| # '''ma'ak''' - without; with no ...
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| # '''nya''' - for [benefit; purpose of], [{{sc|ben}}]; by [actor; author]
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| # '''atse''' - opposite; the other side
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| * spatial
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| # '''pue''' - back; behind; rear
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| # '''tahe''' - below; under; beneath; underneath
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| # '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
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| # '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
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| # '''maye''' - between; among
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| # '''ma'e''' - before; ahead of; in front of
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| # '''nahe''' - into; within; in [located inside of]
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| # '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
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| # '''hue''' - at [in the same location as]
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| # '''tsa'e''' - across ; through; beyond; past
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| # '''atse''' - across; opposite; the other side
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| # '''enye''' - outside of; exterior to
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| # '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
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| # '''ua'e''' - above; over [space]
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| # '''yane''' - beside; by; next to; near; close to
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| * temporal
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| # '''pue''' - afterwards; after; later
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| # '''ma'e''' - before; earlier
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| # '''naye''' - during; hence
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| # '''tsaye''' - since; until
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| === conjunctions === | | === conjunctions === |
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| * '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well | | * |
| * '''me''' - but, however, and not
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| * '''ua''' - or
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| * ''' ''' - so, therefore
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| * '''ke''' - that, whether
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| * '''ama''' - when (temporal)
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| * '''naye''' - while, during, as
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| * '''iya''' - if (conditional)
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| * '''nye''' - because, since
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| * ''' ''' - in order that (purpose)
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| * ''' ''' - even when, even if, albeit, still
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| * ''' ''' - anyway, although, on the other hand
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| == relative clauses == | | == relative clauses == |
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| * ''He broke the bone which I gave him.'' | | * |
| : '''ha ke ueso na'eha yetaye tanyaye'''
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| : 3{{sc|sg}} {{sc|p}} bone 1{{sc|sg}}-{{sc|a.p}}-3{{sc|sg}} give-{{sc|pst}} break-{{sc|pst}}
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| * ''I saw the car that he bought.''
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| : '''na ke nkale ha tsumpaye anyaye'''
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| : 1{{sc|sg}} {{sc|p}} car 3{{sc|sg}} buy-{{sc|pst}} see-{{sc|pst}}
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| == interjections == | | == interjections == |
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| * '''a''' - yes | | * |
| * '''ak''' - no
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| ** '''nka''' - no! {{sc|emp.neg}}
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| * '''yata''' - hello / goodbye
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| ** '''hala''' - hey, hi (on the phone)
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| * '''tsepa''' - please
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| * '''nyasa''' - thank you
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| * '''hako''' - you're welcome
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| * '''niha''' - fine, OK, great
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|
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| === cursing === | | === cursing === |
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| # '''katse''' - epithet; similar to "bastard", "bitch" or "asshole."
| | * |
| # '''kuna''' - shit (''lit'': to defecate)
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| # '''kyosa''' - fornicate; have sex
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| # '''nanka''' - general invective; "Damn it!"
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| # '''tsaya''' (-'''tsa''') - general invective; "Fuck!" or "Shit!"
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| * '''eta kuna''' | |
| : {{sc|p}}.2{{sc|sg}} shit
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| : ''You are shat. / You are shit.''
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| * '''kya ta'i kyosa'''
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| : {{sc|imp}} 2{{sc|sg}}.{{sc|refl}} fornicate
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| : ''Fuck yourself!''
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| * '''onatsa tayo'''
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| : mother.damned 2{{sc|sg}}.{{sc|poss}}
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| : ''mother fucker'' / ''your damned mother''
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| == numbers == | | == numbers == |
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| == ordering of phrases == | | == ordering of phrases == |
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| * I will eat pig. | | * |
| * It is pig that I will eat.
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| * He broke the bone.
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| * The bone broke/was broken.
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| * I was bitten.
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| * He wants to be beaten.
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| * The broken bone.
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| * I gave the fruit to the child.
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| * I gave (it) to the child.
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| * I gave the fruit.
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| * The fruit was given to the child.
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| * Give (me) the big bone now.
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| == causative constructions == | | == causative constructions == |
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| * Constructions with '''-mya''' (from [[Kala_lexicon#ma|'''muya''']]), to do, make: | | * |
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| * I am making the beer.
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| * I am keeping him from eating.
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| * I will kill him.
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| * What did you kill?
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| * Note: In English, verbs can be transitive or intransitive, as in "The house burned" or "I burned the house". In Kala, a causative construction is used:
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| * The house is burning.
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| * I am burning the house.
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|
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| == compounding == | | == compounding == |
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| * Kala compounding is right-branching. Kala also reduces redundant syllables. | | * |
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| * '''nyepana''' - raincloud
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| # '''nyepa''' - cloud
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| # '''pana''' - rain
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| * '''ilamo''' - airport
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| # '''ila''' - fly; hover
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| # '''mo''' - place; locale
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|
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| == creating nouns from verbs == | | == creating nouns from verbs == |
|
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| * A noun can be created from a verb root, as with [[Kala_lexicon#a|'''ina''']], to eat: | | * |
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| * '''ina-ko''' - eater
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| * '''ina-no''' - food, thing eaten
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| * '''ina-ma''' - eating-time
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| * '''ina-mo''' - eating-place
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| * '''ina-mya''' - act of eating
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| * '''ina-nyo''' - eating instrument
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| * '''ina-pe''' - portion of food; morsel, crumb
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| * '''ina-to''' - manner of eating
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|
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| == Index == | | == Index == |
