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{{Kala 2}}
{{Kala 2}}


{{WIP}}
__NOTOC__
 
== pronunciation ==
 
* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
 
=== vowels ===
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!'''Front'''
!'''Central'''
!'''Back'''
|-align=center
!'''Close'''
|{{IPA|i~i:}} '''(i)'''  || || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
|-align=center
!'''Mid'''
|{{IPA|e~e:}} '''(e)''' || || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
|-align=center
!'''Open'''
| || {{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)''' ||
|}
 
==== diphthongs ====
 
* Both of the falling [[wp:Diphthong|diphthongs]] as well as '''uai''' and '''yao''' only occur word finally.
 
===== falling =====
 
*{{IPA|[aɪ~aɪ:]}} - '''ai'''
*{{IPA|[aʊ~aʊ:]}} - '''ao'''
 
===== rising =====
 
*{{IPA|[wa~wa:]}} - '''ua'''
*{{IPA|[waɪ~waɪ:]}} - '''uai'''
*{{IPA|[ja~ja:]}} - '''ya'''
*{{IPA|[jaʊ~jaʊ:]}} - '''yao'''
*{{IPA|[je~je:]}} - '''ye'''
*{{IPA|[jo~jo:]}} - '''yo'''
 
=== consonants ===
 
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! rowspan="2"|
! rowspan="2"|Labial
! colspan="2"|Dental
! rowspan="2"|Palatal
! colspan="2"|Velar
! rowspan="2"|Glottal
|-align=center
!<small>central</small>
!<small>lateral</small>
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>labial</small>
|-align=center
! Nasal
| {{IPA|m}} '''(m)'''
| {{IPA|n}} '''(n)'''
|
| {{IPA|ɲ}} '''(ny)'''
|
|
|
|-align=center
!Plosive
| {{IPA|p~b}} '''(p)'''
| {{IPA|t~d}} '''(t)'''
|
|
| {{IPA|k~g}} '''(k)'''
| 
| {{IPA|ʔ}} '''(')'''
|-align=center
!Fricative
|
| {{IPA|s}} '''(s)'''
|
| {{IPA|ʃ}} '''(s)'''
|
|
| {{IPA|h~ɦ}} '''(h)'''
|-align=center
!Affricate
|
| {{IPA|ts}} '''(ts)'''
| {{IPA|tɬ}} '''(tl)'''
| {{IPA|tʃ}} '''(ts)'''
|
|
|
|-align=center
! Approximant
|
|
| {{IPA|l~r}} '''(l)'''
| {{IPA|j}} '''(y)'''
|
| {{IPA|w}} '''(u)'''
|
|}
 
==== allophony ====
 
* /h/ > /ɦ/ when preceded or followed by a front vowel.
* The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above. It is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs that are not connected.
* <'''s'''> & <'''ts'''> are /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, unless immediately preceded or followed by one another, then <'''s'''> is always /s/ and <'''ts'''> is always /tʃ/.
* However, one could pronounce them either way (e.g. always /s/ & /ts/) and still be understood.
 
*Example:
 
:'''sitsa''' - /'si:.tʃa/ - warmth, heat / warm, hot / to heat up
:'''tsasu''' - /'tʃa:.su/ - cursive writing; having successive letters joined together
 
==== phonotactics ====
 
* Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be [[wp:Labialization|labialized]] or [[wp:Palatalization|palatalized]].
** There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of father, etc.
* Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword.
 
==== syllable structure ====
 
* ''See also'': [[Kala/syllables|Syllables]]
 
*(N)(C)V/D(F)
**N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
**C - consonant
**V - vowel
**D - diphthong
**F - final; coda
 
*The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.


__NOTOC__
==== stress ====
 
* In Kala stress falls on the [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|penultimate]] syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|ultimate]].
 
==== prenasalized consonants ====
 
* In Kala, almost every consonant can be [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalized]], but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases  of [[wp:Syllabic_consonant|syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.
 
* '''mp''' /ᵐp~ᵐb/
:Example: '''mpaka''' /ˈᵐpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary / border / line
* '''nt''' /ⁿt~ⁿd/
:Example: '''ntama''' /ˈⁿta.ma/ - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
* '''nk''' /ᵑk~ᵑ/
:Example: '''nkapa''' /ˈᵑka.pa/ - ''n'' - alcohol / grog
 
== sentence structure ==
 
''See also'': [[Kala Sentences]]
 
* Most sentences in [[Kala]] contain a verb phrase, typically denoting the occurrence of an action. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers.
 
* Most sentences also contain at least one noun phrase, typically denoting a person or thing. A noun phrase consists of a noun plus any modifiers.
 
* The two most important noun phrases are the subject and the object. Their exact meaning depends on the choice of verb, but
:loosely speaking, the subject is the person or thing that carries out the action, and the object is the person or thing that is directly affected by the action.
 
* [[Kala]] has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles).
 
=== word order ===
 
* [[Kala]] phrase structure can be represented as follows:
 
: ''(temporal adverb) subject-(modifier) (particle) ((object)-(modifier)) verb-(modifier) (particle)''
: or, more simply '''SOV'''
 
== parts of speech ==
 
=== verbs ===
 
* A typical verb denotes the occurrence or abandonment of an action (run, stop), a relationship (have, lose), or a state (stand, melt). Most verbs can be reused without change as a noun.
 
==== tense ====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
! tense || suffix || gloss || example
|-
| remote past || '''-yeha''' || REM || '''nam inayeha'''<br>We ate a long while ago.
|-
| recent past || '''-yehi''' || REC || '''nam inayehi'''<br>We just ate.
|-
| past || '''-ye''' || PST || '''nam inaye'''<br>We ate.
|-
| present || ''not marked''  ||  || '''nam ina'''<br>We eat. / We are eating. / We do eat.
|-
| future || '''-tli''' || FUT || '''nam inatli'''<br>We will eat.
|-
| immediate future || '''-tlihi''' || IMM || '''nam inatlihi'''<br>We will eat soon/now.
|-
| distant future || '''-tliha''' || DIS || '''nam inatliha'''<br>We will eat a long while from now.
|}
* Kala does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. "I ate", "I used to eat", "I have eaten", "I had eaten").
* If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
:''Example'': We ate yesterday.
::{|
|'''yomaye'''  ||'''nam'''  ||'''ina''' 
|-
|day-{{sc|pst}}  ||1{{sc|pl}}  ||eat 
|}
 
==== modifiers ====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:600px;"
! usage || suffix || from || example
|-
| ability, can || '''-pa''' || '''pala'''<br>to be able, can || '''na yalapa'''<br>I am able to go.
|-
| attempt, try || '''-pya''' || '''upya'''<br>to attempt; to try || '''na yalapya'''<br>I am trying to leave.
|-
| negation || '''-k''' || '''nke'''<br>no, not; negative || '''na yalak'''<br>I am not going.
|-
| beginning, initiate || '''-mu''' || '''mula'''<br>start; begin || '''na yalamu'''<br>I begin to go. / I'm starting to leave.
|-
| permission; allow || '''-myo''' || '''myonta'''<br>to allow; permit || '''na yalamyo'''<br>I am allowed to go.
|-
| should, ought to || '''-ne''' || '''neya'''<br>should, to ought to || '''na yalane'''<br>I should go.
|-
| need, necessity || '''-he''' || '''heya'''<br>to need; require || '''na yalahe'''<br>I need to go.
|-
| deintensify || '''-hi''' || '''ahi'''<br>small; little || '''na inahi'''<br>I am snacking.
|-
| appear, seem || '''-tse''' || '''tse'e'''<br>to seem; appearance || '''ha yalatse'''<br>He seems to be going.
|-
| want, desire || '''-ue''' || '''ueha'''<br>to want; desire || '''na yalaue'''<br>I want to go.
|-
| intention, volition || '''-ue''' || '''ueyo'''<br>to intend to || '''na yalaue'''<br>I intend to go.
|}
 
=== nouns ===
 
* Nouns include [[wp:Pronoun|pronouns]], [[wp:Adjective|adjectives]] (nouns of quality), and [[wp:Determiner_(linguistics)|determiners]].
 
==== plurality ====
* A countable noun (or "count noun") can be modified by a number, and can accept the plural. Typical countable nouns represent objects that are clearly individual entities, such as houses, cats, and thoughts. For example:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:400px;"
! || root || usage || example
|-
| '''-m''' || '''ma''' || general plural || '''tsakam'''<br>houses
|-
| '''-mha''' || '''ma''' + '''-ha''' || indefinite abundance || '''tsakamha'''<br>many/a lot houses
|-
| '''-mi''' || '''ma''' + '''-hi''' || indefinite insufficiency || '''tsakami'''<br>few houses
|-
| '''tli-''' || '''tatli'''  || collective plural || '''tlikuma'''<br>sleuth of bears
|-
| '''-lo''' || '''ma''' || alternative to '''-m''' || '''yamalo'''<br>mountains
|}
 
* When modified by a number, general plurals need not be marked. Example:
: '''tsaka ta'o''' - Two houses.
 
==== affect / degree ====
 
* The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''.
These are respectively realized as '''-ki''' and '''-ka''' when attached to a word that has a final syllable onset of /h/.
:Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
:Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion
 
* These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
:Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
 
==== comparative / superlative ====
 
* In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
 
*Example
: '''tahaka'''
: bigger/biggest
::'''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
:: house {{sc|3sg-poss}} {{sc|obj}} {{sc|1sg-poss}} big-{{sc|aug}}
:: ''His house is bigger than mine.''
*Example
: '''yanaha'''
: more yellow/most yellow
::'''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
:: {{sc|obj}} flower.{{sc|pl}} {{sc|2sg-poss}} yellow-{{sc|aug}}
:: ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
 
==== gender ====
* Nouns do not normally indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, the suffixes '''-ta''' and '''-na''' are used:
 
* '''uma''' - horse
: '''umata''' - a male horse, a stallion
: '''umana''' - a female horse, a mare
 
==== pronouns ====
 
* [[Kala]] generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
* There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
|-
! || Nominative || Accusative || Possessive || Reflexive || Reciprocal
|-
| {{sc|1sg}}
|| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''nayo''' || '''na'i''' || ''' '''
|-
| {{sc|2sg}}
|| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''tayo''' || '''ta'i''' || ''' '''
|-
| {{sc|3sg}}
|| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''hayo''' || '''ha'i''' || ''' '''
|-
| {{sc|4sg}}
|| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tlayo''' || '''tla'i''' || ''' '''
|-
| {{sc|1pl}}
|| '''nam''' || '''enam''' || '''namyo''' || '''nami''' || '''nanku'''
|-
| {{sc|1pl.excl}}
|| '''na'am''' || '''ena'am''' || '''na'amyo''' || '''na'ami''' || '''na'anku'''
|-
| {{sc|2pl}}
|| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tami''' || '''tanku'''
|-
| {{sc|3pl}}
|| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kami''' || '''kanku'''
|-
| {{sc|4pl}}
|| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlanku'''
|-
|}
 
*Example:
:{|
|'''eta'''||'''nahe'''||'''tsaka'''||'''hayo'''||'''a'''
|-
|{{sc|acc}}-2sg||inside||house||3sg-{{sc|poss}}||be
|}
 
==== correlative pronouns ====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:900px;"
! || ''query'' || ''proximal'' || ''medial'' || ''distal'' || ''indefinite'' || ''negative'' || ''ambiguous'' || ''universal'' || ''generalized''
|-
| ''adjective'' || '''ote'''<br>which || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''iha'''<br>some || '''-k'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>any || '''kua'''<br>every || '''ote'''<br>whichever
|-
| ''person'' || '''ko'''<br>who || '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person (there) || '''hyako'''<br>someone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>anyone || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''teko'''<br>who(m)ever
|-
| ''thing'' || '''ke'''<br>what || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''hyano'''<br>something || '''nok'''<br>no thing || '''nola'''<br>anything || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''ote'''<br>whatever
|-
| ''time'' || '''ama'''<br>when || '''ima'''<br>now || '''uama'''<br>then || '''yeme'''<br>then (yon) || '''hyama'''<br>sometime || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>anytime || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''tema'''<br>whenever
|-
| ''place'' || '''mo'''<br>where || '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemo'''<br>there (away) || '''hyamo'''<br>somewhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>anywhere || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''temo'''<br>wherever
|-
| ''way'' || '''to'''<br>how || '''yoto'''<br>thus || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''hyato'''<br>somehow || '''tok'''<br>no way || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''heto'''<br>however
|-
| ''amount'' || '''uku'''<br>how many || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''ok'''<br>none || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''teku'''<br>however much/many
|-
| ''reason'' || '''nye'''<br>why || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''tenye'''<br>whyever
|}
 
* To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and [[Kala_lexicon#ka|'''ka''']] is placed at the end. Example:
 
* '''tam yala''' - ''{{sc|2pl}} go'' - You all are going.
: '''ama tam yala ka''' - ''time {{sc|2pl}} go {{sc|q}}'' - When are you all going?
 
==  compound sentences (subordinate clauses)==
 
* While he was spearing mudbugs, he heard a dog singing.
 
* If you want good beer, you should make your own beer.
 
* While looking for tubers, I saw a nun in a clearing.
 
* If you ate the toad (which you might have), you might get sick.
 
* If you ate the toad (which you didn't), you would be dead.
 
== adjectives ==
 
* [[Kala]] uses verbs instead of having proper adjectives. For example;
 
* '''na nyota'''
: {{sc|1sg}} thirst
: ''I am thirsty.''
 
* '''tla kiha'''
: {{sc|4sg}} be.tall
: ''It is tall.'' (lit: it talls)
 
* '''nam ke punka ketla inaye'''
: {{sc|1pl}} {{sc|obj}} fruit be.red eat-{{sc|pst}}
: ''We ate the red fruit.''
 
== adverbs ==
 
* An adverbial precedes the clause it modifies.
 
* ''I drank thirstily.''
:{|
|'''nyotan'''  ||'''na''' ||'''inuye''' 
|-
|thirst.{{sc|adv}}  ||1{{sc|sg}}  ||drink-{{sc|pst}} 
|}
 
* ''She will sleep quietly.''
:{|
|'''kyo'an'''  ||'''ha''' ||'''mokutli''' 
|-
|quiet.{{sc|adv}}  ||3{{sc|sg}}  ||sleep-{{sc|fut}} 
|}
 
== prepositions & conjunctions ==
 
=== prepositions ===
 
* relational
# '''taye''' - pertaining to; regarding; about; a matter of
# '''te''' - of; from [{{sc|gen}}]
# '''mahe''' - approximately; around; close to
# '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by; furnished with]; together
# '''ma'ak''' - without; with no ...
# '''nya''' - for [benefit; purpose of], [{{sc|ben}}]; by [actor; author]
# '''atse''' - opposite; the other side
 
* spatial
# '''pue''' - back; behind; rear
# '''tahe''' - below; under; beneath; underneath
# '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
# '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
# '''maye''' - between; among
# '''ma'e''' - before; ahead of; in front of
# '''nahe''' - into; within; in [located inside of]
# '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
# '''hue''' - at [in the same location as]
# '''tsa'e''' - across ; through; beyond; past
# '''atse''' - across; opposite; the other side
# '''enye''' - outside of; exterior to
# '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
# '''ua'e''' - above; over [space]
# '''yane''' - beside; by; next to; near; close to
 
* temporal
# '''pue''' - afterwards; after; later
# '''ma'e''' - before; earlier
# '''naye''' - during; hence
# '''tsaye''' - since; until
 
=== conjunctions ===
 
* '''ma'''  -  and; also; too; as well
* '''me'''  -  but, however, and not
* '''ua'''  -  or
* ''' ''' -  so, therefore
* '''ke''' -  that, whether
* '''ama''' -  when (temporal)
* '''naye''' -  while, during, as
* '''iya''' -  if (conditional)
* '''nye''' -  because, since
* ''' ''' -  in order that (purpose)
* ''' ''' -  even when, even if, albeit, still
* ''' ''' -  anyway, although, on the other hand
 
== relative clauses ==
 
* ''He broke the bone which I gave him.''
: '''ha ke ueso na'eha yetaye tanyaye'''
: 3{{sc|sg}} {{sc|p}} bone 1{{sc|sg}}-{{sc|a.p}}-3{{sc|sg}} give-{{sc|pst}} break-{{sc|pst}}
 
* ''I saw the car that he bought.''
: '''na ke nkale ha tsumpaye anyaye'''
: 1{{sc|sg}} {{sc|p}} car 3{{sc|sg}} buy-{{sc|pst}} see-{{sc|pst}}
 
== interjections ==
 
* '''a''' - yes
* '''ak''' - no
** '''nka''' - no! {{sc|emp.neg}}
* '''yata''' - hello / goodbye
** '''hala''' - hey, hi (on the phone)
* '''tsepa''' - please
* '''nyasa''' - thank you
* '''hako''' - you're welcome
* '''niha''' - fine, OK, great
 
=== cursing ===
 
# '''katse''' - epithet; similar to "bastard", "bitch" or "asshole."
# '''kuna''' - shit (''lit'': to defecate)
# '''kyosa''' - fornicate; have sex
# '''nanka''' - general invective; "Damn it!"
# '''tsaya''' (-'''tsa''') - general invective; "Fuck!" or "Shit!"
 
* '''eta kuna'''
: {{sc|p}}.2{{sc|sg}} shit
: ''You are shat. / You are shit.''
 
* '''kya ta'i kyosa'''
: {{sc|imp}} 2{{sc|sg}}.{{sc|refl}} fornicate
: ''Fuck yourself!''
 
* '''onatsa tayo'''
: mother.damned 2{{sc|sg}}.{{sc|poss}}
: ''mother fucker'' / ''your damned mother''
 
== numbers ==
 
=== cardinal numbers ===
 
*'''e'o''' - zero; null
*'''na'o''' - one
*'''ta'o''' - two
*'''ha'o''' - three
*'''ma'o''' - four
*'''ya'o''' - five
*'''tsa'o''' - six
*'''ka'o''' - seven
*'''pa'o''' - eight
*'''sa'o''' - nine
*'''ue'o''' - ten
-
*'''nye'o''' - (one) hundred; 10<sup>2</sup>
*'''nya'o''' - five hundred
*'''tle'o''' - (one) thousand; 10<sup>3</sup>
*'''mue'o''' - ten thousand; 10<sup>4</sup>
*'''kye'o''' - (one) hundred thousand; 10<sup>5</sup>
*'''nte'o''' - (one) million; 10<sup>6</sup>
*'''hue'o''' - (one) billion; 10<sup>9</sup>
 
=== higher numbers ===
 
* '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
* '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
* '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
* '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') | '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
* '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
 
== expressions of time ==
 
* Tense markers are often replaced by time expressions. Here are a few of the more common ones:
 
* '''iyoma''' - today
* '''iyohua''' - tonight
* '''yomaye''' - yesterday
* '''yomatli''' - tomorrow
* '''yomua''' - morning
* '''puama''' - evening
* '''yomuatli''' - tomorrow morning
* '''yohuaye''' - last night
* '''sayo''' - month
* '''anyo''' - year
* '''anyotlipua''' - end of next year
* '''anyoye ue'o''' - ten years ago
* '''sayotli ta'o''' - in two months
 
== ordering of phrases ==
 
* I will eat pig.
* It is pig that I will eat.
* He broke the bone.
* The bone broke/was broken.
* I was bitten.
* He wants to be beaten.
* The broken bone.
* I gave the fruit to the child.
* I gave (it) to the child.
* I gave the fruit.
* The fruit was given to the child.
* Give (me) the big bone now.
 
== causative constructions ==
 
* Constructions with '''-mya''' (from [[Kala_lexicon#ma|'''muya''']]), to do, make:
 
* I am making the beer.
* I am keeping him from eating.
* I will kill him.
* What did you kill?
 
* Note: In English, verbs can be transitive or intransitive, as in "The house burned" or "I burned the house". In Kala, a causative construction is used:
 
* The house is burning.
* I am burning the house.
 
== compounding ==
 
* Kala compounding is right-branching. Kala also reduces redundant syllables.
 
* '''nyepana''' - raincloud
# '''nyepa''' - cloud
# '''pana''' - rain
 
* '''ilamo''' - airport
# '''ila''' - fly; hover
# '''mo''' - place; locale
 
== creating nouns from verbs ==
 
* A noun can be created from a verb root, as with [[Kala_lexicon#a|'''ina''']], to eat:


* '''inako''' - eater
* '''inano''' - food, thing eaten
* '''inama''' - eating-time
* '''inamo''' - eating-place
* '''inamya''' - act of eating
* '''inanyoo''' - eating instrument
* '''inape''' - portion of food, meal
* '''inato''' - manner of eating


== Index ==
== Index ==

Revision as of 17:32, 9 July 2013


pronunciation

vowels

Front Central Back
Close i~i: (i) u~u: (u)
Mid e~e: (e) o~o: (o)
Open a~a: (a)

diphthongs

  • Both of the falling diphthongs as well as uai and yao only occur word finally.
falling
  • [aɪ~aɪ:] - ai
  • [aʊ~aʊ:] - ao
rising
  • [wa~wa:] - ua
  • [waɪ~waɪ:] - uai
  • [ja~ja:] - ya
  • [jaʊ~jaʊ:] - yao
  • [je~je:] - ye
  • [jo~jo:] - yo

consonants

Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal
central lateral plain labial
Nasal m (m) n (n) ɲ (ny)
Plosive p~b (p) t~d (t) k~g (k) ʔ (')
Fricative s (s) ʃ (s) h~ɦ (h)
Affricate ts (ts) tɬ (tl) tʃ (ts)
Approximant l~r (l) j (y) w (u)

allophony

  • /h/ > /ɦ/ when preceded or followed by a front vowel.
  • The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above. It is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs that are not connected.
  • <s> & <ts> are /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, unless immediately preceded or followed by one another, then <s> is always /s/ and <ts> is always /tʃ/.
  • However, one could pronounce them either way (e.g. always /s/ & /ts/) and still be understood.
  • Example:
sitsa - /'si:.tʃa/ - warmth, heat / warm, hot / to heat up
tsasu - /'tʃa:.su/ - cursive writing; having successive letters joined together

phonotactics

  • Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized.
    • There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of father, etc.
  • Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword.

syllable structure

  • (N)(C)V/D(F)
    • N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
    • C - consonant
    • V - vowel
    • D - diphthong
    • F - final; coda
  • The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.

stress

  • In Kala stress falls on the penultimate syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is ultimate.

prenasalized consonants

  • In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases of syllabic /n/ or /m/.
  • mp /ᵐp~ᵐb/
Example: mpaka /ˈᵐpa.ka/ - n - boundary / border / line
  • nt /ⁿt~ⁿd/
Example: ntama /ˈⁿta.ma/ - n - calf (a young cow or bull)
  • nk /ᵑk~ᵑ/
Example: nkapa /ˈᵑka.pa/ - n - alcohol / grog

sentence structure

See also: Kala Sentences

  • Most sentences in Kala contain a verb phrase, typically denoting the occurrence of an action. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers.
  • Most sentences also contain at least one noun phrase, typically denoting a person or thing. A noun phrase consists of a noun plus any modifiers.
  • The two most important noun phrases are the subject and the object. Their exact meaning depends on the choice of verb, but
loosely speaking, the subject is the person or thing that carries out the action, and the object is the person or thing that is directly affected by the action.
  • Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles).

word order

  • Kala phrase structure can be represented as follows:
(temporal adverb) subject-(modifier) (particle) ((object)-(modifier)) verb-(modifier) (particle)
or, more simply SOV

parts of speech

verbs

  • A typical verb denotes the occurrence or abandonment of an action (run, stop), a relationship (have, lose), or a state (stand, melt). Most verbs can be reused without change as a noun.

tense

tense suffix gloss example
remote past -yeha REM nam inayeha
We ate a long while ago.
recent past -yehi REC nam inayehi
We just ate.
past -ye PST nam inaye
We ate.
present not marked nam ina
We eat. / We are eating. / We do eat.
future -tli FUT nam inatli
We will eat.
immediate future -tlihi IMM nam inatlihi
We will eat soon/now.
distant future -tliha DIS nam inatliha
We will eat a long while from now.
  • Kala does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. "I ate", "I used to eat", "I have eaten", "I had eaten").
  • If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
Example: We ate yesterday.
yomaye nam ina
day-pst 1pl eat

modifiers

usage suffix from example
ability, can -pa pala
to be able, can		 na yalapa
I am able to go.
attempt, try -pya upya
to attempt; to try		 na yalapya
I am trying to leave.
negation -k nke
no, not; negative		 na yalak
I am not going.
beginning, initiate -mu mula
start; begin		 na yalamu
I begin to go. / I'm starting to leave.
permission; allow -myo myonta
to allow; permit		 na yalamyo
I am allowed to go.
should, ought to -ne neya
should, to ought to		 na yalane
I should go.
need, necessity -he heya
to need; require		 na yalahe
I need to go.
deintensify -hi ahi
small; little		 na inahi
I am snacking.
appear, seem -tse tse'e
to seem; appearance		 ha yalatse
He seems to be going.
want, desire -ue ueha
to want; desire		 na yalaue
I want to go.
intention, volition -ue ueyo
to intend to		 na yalaue
I intend to go.

nouns

plurality

  • A countable noun (or "count noun") can be modified by a number, and can accept the plural. Typical countable nouns represent objects that are clearly individual entities, such as houses, cats, and thoughts. For example:
root usage example
-m ma general plural tsakam
houses
-mha ma + -ha indefinite abundance tsakamha
many/a lot houses
-mi ma + -hi indefinite insufficiency tsakami
few houses
tli- tatli collective plural tlikuma
sleuth of bears
-lo ma alternative to -m yamalo
mountains
  • When modified by a number, general plurals need not be marked. Example:
tsaka ta'o - Two houses.

affect / degree

  • The diminutive is formed with -hi, and the augmentative with -ha.

These are respectively realized as -ki and -ka when attached to a word that has a final syllable onset of /h/.

Example : ina - food, meal | inahi - snack, morsel | inaha - feast, banquet
Example : tsaka - house, home, dwelling | tsakahi - shack, hut, cabin | tsakaha - palace, mansion
  • These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
Example : yanahi - light yellow, kuyaha - dark green

comparative / superlative

  • In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
  • Example
tahaka
bigger/biggest
tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka
house 3sg-poss obj 1sg-poss big-aug
His house is bigger than mine.
  • Example
yanaha
more yellow/most yellow
ke mauam tayo yanaha
obj flower.pl 2sg-poss yellow-aug
Your flowers are the most yellow.

gender

  • Nouns do not normally indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, the suffixes -ta and -na are used:
  • uma - horse
umata - a male horse, a stallion
umana - a female horse, a mare

pronouns

  • Kala generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
  • There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
Nominative Accusative Possessive Reflexive Reciprocal
1sg na ena nayo na'i
2sg ta eta tayo ta'i
3sg ha eha hayo ha'i
4sg tla etla tlayo tla'i
1pl nam enam namyo nami nanku
1pl.excl na'am ena'am na'amyo na'ami na'anku
2pl tam etam tamyo tami tanku
3pl kam ekam kamyo kami kanku
4pl tlam etlam tlamyo tlami tlanku
  • Example:
eta nahe tsaka hayo a
acc-2sg inside house 3sg-poss be

correlative pronouns

query proximal medial distal indefinite negative ambiguous universal generalized
adjective ote
which		 itla
this		 uatla
that		 yetla
that (there)		 iha
some		 -k
none		 ula
any		 kua
every		 ote
whichever
person ko
who		 iko
this person		 uako
that person		 yeko
that person (there)		 hyako
someone		 tlok
no one		 kola
anyone		 tlokua
everyone		 teko
who(m)ever
thing ke
what		 itla
this		 uatla
that		 yetla
that (there)		 hyano
something		 nok
no thing		 nola
anything		 nokua
everything		 ote
whatever
time ama
when		 ima
now		 uama
then		 yeme
then (yon)		 hyama
sometime		 amak
never		 tlama
anytime		 kuama
always		 tema
whenever
place mo
where		 hina
here		 uana
there		 yemo
there (away)		 hyamo
somewhere		 mok
nowhere		 mola
anywhere		 mokua
everywhere		 temo
wherever
way to
how		 yoto
thus		 hyato
somehow		 tok
no way		 heto
however
amount uku
how many		 ok
none		 teku
however much/many
reason nye
why		 tenye
whyever
  • To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and ka is placed at the end. Example:
  • tam yala - 2pl go - You all are going.
ama tam yala ka - time 2pl go q - When are you all going?

compound sentences (subordinate clauses)

  • While he was spearing mudbugs, he heard a dog singing.
  • If you want good beer, you should make your own beer.
  • While looking for tubers, I saw a nun in a clearing.
  • If you ate the toad (which you might have), you might get sick.
  • If you ate the toad (which you didn't), you would be dead.

adjectives

  • Kala uses verbs instead of having proper adjectives. For example;
  • na nyota
1sg thirst
I am thirsty.
  • tla kiha
4sg be.tall
It is tall. (lit: it talls)
  • nam ke punka ketla inaye
1pl obj fruit be.red eat-pst
We ate the red fruit.

adverbs

  • An adverbial precedes the clause it modifies.
  • I drank thirstily.
nyotan na inuye
thirst.adv 1sg drink-pst
  • She will sleep quietly.
kyo'an ha mokutli
quiet.adv 3sg sleep-fut

prepositions & conjunctions

prepositions

  • relational
  1. taye - pertaining to; regarding; about; a matter of
  2. te - of; from [gen]
  3. mahe - approximately; around; close to
  4. ma'a - with [accompanied by; furnished with]; together
  5. ma'ak - without; with no ...
  6. nya - for [benefit; purpose of], [ben]; by [actor; author]
  7. atse - opposite; the other side
  • spatial
  1. pue - back; behind; rear
  2. tahe - below; under; beneath; underneath
  3. kaye - around; encircling; surrounding
  4. ka'e - to; towards; at [moving toward]
  5. maye - between; among
  6. ma'e - before; ahead of; in front of
  7. nahe - into; within; in [located inside of]
  8. saye - along; following [a line]
  9. hue - at [in the same location as]
  10. tsa'e - across ; through; beyond; past
  11. atse - across; opposite; the other side
  12. enye - outside of; exterior to
  13. uaye - from [moving out of or away from]
  14. ua'e - above; over [space]
  15. yane - beside; by; next to; near; close to
  • temporal
  1. pue - afterwards; after; later
  2. ma'e - before; earlier
  3. naye - during; hence
  4. tsaye - since; until

conjunctions

  • ma - and; also; too; as well
  • me - but, however, and not
  • ua - or
  • - so, therefore
  • ke - that, whether
  • ama - when (temporal)
  • naye - while, during, as
  • iya - if (conditional)
  • nye - because, since
  • - in order that (purpose)
  • - even when, even if, albeit, still
  • - anyway, although, on the other hand

relative clauses

  • He broke the bone which I gave him.
ha ke ueso na'eha yetaye tanyaye
3sg p bone 1sg-a.p-3sg give-pst break-pst
  • I saw the car that he bought.
na ke nkale ha tsumpaye anyaye
1sg p car 3sg buy-pst see-pst

interjections

  • a - yes
  • ak - no
    • nka - no! emp.neg
  • yata - hello / goodbye
    • hala - hey, hi (on the phone)
  • tsepa - please
  • nyasa - thank you
  • hako - you're welcome
  • niha - fine, OK, great

cursing

  1. katse - epithet; similar to "bastard", "bitch" or "asshole."
  2. kuna - shit (lit: to defecate)
  3. kyosa - fornicate; have sex
  4. nanka - general invective; "Damn it!"
  5. tsaya (-tsa) - general invective; "Fuck!" or "Shit!"
  • eta kuna
p.2sg shit
You are shat. / You are shit.
  • kya ta'i kyosa
imp 2sg.refl fornicate
Fuck yourself!
  • onatsa tayo
mother.damned 2sg.poss
mother fucker / your damned mother

numbers

cardinal numbers

  • e'o - zero; null
  • na'o - one
  • ta'o - two
  • ha'o - three
  • ma'o - four
  • ya'o - five
  • tsa'o - six
  • ka'o - seven
  • pa'o - eight
  • sa'o - nine
  • ue'o - ten

-

  • nye'o - (one) hundred; 102
  • nya'o - five hundred
  • tle'o - (one) thousand; 103
  • mue'o - ten thousand; 104
  • kye'o - (one) hundred thousand; 105
  • nte'o - (one) million; 106
  • hue'o - (one) billion; 109

higher numbers

  • uena'o - eleven / 11
  • taue'o - twenty / 20
  • nyeka'o - one hundred seven / 107
  • hanyetauetsa'o (long form) | hatatsa'o (short form) - three hundred twenty six / 326
  • tsatletauema'o - six thousand and twenty four / 6024

expressions of time

  • Tense markers are often replaced by time expressions. Here are a few of the more common ones:
  • iyoma - today
  • iyohua - tonight
  • yomaye - yesterday
  • yomatli - tomorrow
  • yomua - morning
  • puama - evening
  • yomuatli - tomorrow morning
  • yohuaye - last night
  • sayo - month
  • anyo - year
  • anyotlipua - end of next year
  • anyoye ue'o - ten years ago
  • sayotli ta'o - in two months

ordering of phrases

  • I will eat pig.
  • It is pig that I will eat.
  • He broke the bone.
  • The bone broke/was broken.
  • I was bitten.
  • He wants to be beaten.
  • The broken bone.
  • I gave the fruit to the child.
  • I gave (it) to the child.
  • I gave the fruit.
  • The fruit was given to the child.
  • Give (me) the big bone now.

causative constructions

  • Constructions with -mya (from muya), to do, make:
  • I am making the beer.
  • I am keeping him from eating.
  • I will kill him.
  • What did you kill?
  • Note: In English, verbs can be transitive or intransitive, as in "The house burned" or "I burned the house". In Kala, a causative construction is used:
  • The house is burning.
  • I am burning the house.

compounding

  • Kala compounding is right-branching. Kala also reduces redundant syllables.
  • nyepana - raincloud
  1. nyepa - cloud
  2. pana - rain
  • ilamo - airport
  1. ila - fly; hover
  2. mo - place; locale

creating nouns from verbs

  • A noun can be created from a verb root, as with ina, to eat:
  • inako - eater
  • inano - food, thing eaten
  • inama - eating-time
  • inamo - eating-place
  • inamya - act of eating
  • inanyoo - eating instrument
  • inape - portion of food, meal
  • inato - manner of eating

Index

grammar outline | sentences | questions | lexicon | thematic lexicon | writing
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