Proto-Alpianic

Proto-Alpianic
Spoken in:	Switzerland, ca. 1000 BC
Conworld:	League of Lost Languages
Total speakers:	extinct (reconstructed)
Genealogical classification:	Hesperic Alpianic Proto-Alpianic
Basic word order:	V2; SOV in subclauses
Morphological type:	fusional
Morphosyntactic alignment:	accusative
Created by:
Jörg Rhiemeier	2013

Proto-Alpianic is the common ancestor of the Alpianic branch of the Hesperic language family in the League of Lost Languages. It is currently being created by Jörg Rhiemeier.

Proto-Alpianic probably was spoken in central Switzerland around 1000 BC and appears to be the language which gave the Alps their name (*alpa 'mountain'). A closely related language probably was spoken further north and gave the Alb, a lesser mountain range north of the Alps, its name. Proto-Alpianic is about as closely related to Old Albic as Greek is to Latin.

Phonology

Consonants

	Labial	Coronal	Dorsal	Laryngeal
Neutral stops	*p	*t	*k
Aspirated stops	*ph	*th	*kh
Affricates	*pf	*ts	*kx
Fricatives	*f	*s	*x	*h
Nasals	*m	*n	*ń
Laterals		*l	*ĺ
Rhotics		*r	*ŕ
Semivowel			*j

The dorsal nasal *ń almost certainly was a velar nasal [ŋ]. The phoneme *ĺ probably was a velarized alveolar lateral [ɫ], the phoneme *ŕ a uvular trill [ʀ]. All other symbols in the transcription scheme used here can be taken as having their IPA value.

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	*i î		*u û
Mid	*e ê ẽ		*o ô õ
Low		*a â ã

The circumflex accent marks a long vowel; nasal vowels (with tilde) are always short.

Syllable structure

The maximum syllable structure is (s)C(R)V(L) with the following values:

• C is any consonant.
• R is any nasal, liquid or *j; if present, C must be an obstruent.
• V is any vowel.
• L is any nasal or liquid, or gemination of the following consonant. May not be present in a syllable with a long or nasal vowel, and not in final syllables.

Accent

The accent, which probably was stress, falls on the first syllable of the word.

Morphology

Proto-Alpianic is a fusional-synthetic language. The morphosyntactic alignment is nominative-accusative, though predicate nouns are, unlike most European languages, in the accusative rather than the nominative case.

Nouns

Nouns are divided into three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter; to a large part arbitrary but the neuter gender contains only inanimate nouns) and are inflected for two numbers (singular, plural) and four cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative). There are several declension classes that inflect differently; these cut across the genders, but neuters always decline differently from non-neuters of the same declension class: the accusative is always the same as the nominative and the dative the same as the genitive, and the plural is formed differently.

Case usage

• The nominative is used for the subject of the clause.
• The genitive is used for possessors, and the objects of a small number of prepositions.
• The dative is used for indirect objects, and the objects of most prepositions.
• The accusative is used for the direct object, but also for predicate nouns.

A-stems, masculine

With rare exceptions, masculine nouns are a-stems.

Example: *phassa 'person'

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*phassa	*phassi
Genitive	*phasse	*phassie
Dative	*phasso	*phassio
Accusative	*phassã	*phassẽ

A-stems, neuter

Neuter a-stems are not as predominant as masculine a-stems, but still frequent as many basic vocabulary items fall into this class.

Example: *kxara 'stone'

	Singular	Plural
Nom.-acc.	*kxara	*kxaro
Gen.-dat.	*kxaro	*kxaralo

I-stems, feminine

With rare exceptions, feminine nouns are i-stems.

Example: *saria 'woman'

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*saria	*sari
Genitive	*sarie	*sarie
Dative	*sario	*sario
Accusative	*sariã	*sariẽ

I-stems, neuter

Example: *pãti 'ribbon'

	Singular	Plural
Nom.-acc.	*pãti	*pãtio
Gen.-dat.	*pãtio	*pãtialo

U-stems, non-neuter

Non-neuter u-stems are rare.

Example: *kańua 'mountain imp'

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*kańua	*kańui
Genitive	*kańue	*kańue
Dative	*kańuo	*kańuo
Accusative	*kańuã	*kańuẽ

U-stems, neuter

This is also a small class.

Example: *khanu 'joint'

	Singular	Plural
Nom.-acc.	*khanu	*khanuo
Gen.-dat.	*khanuo	*khanualo

Consonant stems, neuter

This is a fairly large class; there are no non-neuter consonant stems. It is in this class hard to predict the other forms from knowing the nominative-accusative singular, hence the genitive-dative singular is also given in the dictionary.

Example: *saĺjo 'wing'

	Singular	Plural
Nom.-acc.	*saĺjo	*saĺjalo
Gen.-dat.	*saĺjalo	*saĺjalalo

Example: *thupe 'gift'

	Singular	Plural
Nom.-acc.	*thupe	*thupaso
Gen.-dat.	*thupaso	*thupasalo

While the genitive-dative and the plural forms are not predictable from the nominative-accusative singular, the reverse is possible. All consonants following the stem-final vowel are dropped, and the stem-final vowel changed according to the (first) consonant following the stem-final vowel:

Coda consonant	Vowel is
Labial or liquid	Backed and rounded
*s or *ts	Fronted
Nasal	Nasalized (*i and *u become *ẽ and õ)
Other	Unchanged

Articles

The Proto-Alpianic definite article is declined as follows:

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*sa	*si	*sia	*si	*tsa	*tso
Genitive	*se	*sie	*sie	*sie	*tso	*tsalo
Dative	*so	*sio	*sio	*sio	*tso	*tsalo
Accusative	*sã	*sẽ	*siã	*siẽ	*tsa	*tso

The usage of the numeral *mana '1' as an indefinite article may date back to Proto-Alpianic; it is declined like a first-declension adjective.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree with their head nouns in gender, number and case. They also have the category of degree of comparison: positive (unmarked), comparative and superlative.

There are four declension classes.

First declension

This is a large class, containing all adjectives with a monosyllabic stem. These adjectives decline like a-stems in the masculine and neuter, and like i-stems in the feminine.

Example: *makha 'great, big'

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*makha	*makhi	*makhia	*makhi	*makha	*makho
Genitive	*makhe	*makhie	*makhie	*makhie	*makho	*makhalo
Dative	*makho	*makhio	*makhio	*makhio	*makho	*makhalo
Accusative	*makhã	*makhẽ	*makhiã	*makhiẽ	*makha	*makho

Second declension

This is another large class, consisting of adjectives with a stem of more than one syllable. The difference from the first declension is that the neuters are declined like consonant stems.

Example: *rutiana 'bloody'

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*rutiana	*rutiani	*rutiania	*rutiani	*rutiã	*rutiano
Genitive	*rutiane	*rutianie	*rutianie	*rutianie	*rutiano	*rutianalo
Dative	*rutiano	*rutianio	*rutianio	*rutianio	*rutiano	*rutianalo
Accusative	*rutianã	*rutianẽ	*rutianiã	*rutianiẽ	*rutiã	*rutiano

Third declension

A fairly large class. These are i-stems in all genders. The masculine and feminine forms are the same.

Example: *maltsia 'sweet'

	Masc/Fem.		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*maltsia	*maltsi	*maltsi	*maltsio
Genitive	*maltsie	*maltsie	*maltsio	*maltsialo
Dative	*maltsio	*maltsio	*maltsio	*maltsialo
Accusative	*maltsiã	*maltsiẽ	*maltsi	*maltsio

Fourth declension

A small group. These decline as u-stems in all genders. Masculine and feminine forms are the same.

Example: nartua 'right (direction)'

	Masc/Fem.		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*nartua	*nartui	*nartu	*nartuo
Genitive	*nartue	*nartue	*nartuo	*nartualo
Dative	*nartuo	*nartuo	*nartuo	*nartualo
Accusative	*nartuã	*nartuẽ	*nartu	*nartuo

Comparative and superlative

The comparative is formed with the suffix *-is-: *makhisa 'bigger', *rutianisa 'bloodier', *maltzisa 'sweeter', *nartuisa 'farther right'.

The superlative is formed with the suffix *-iss-: *makhissa 'biggest', *rutianissa 'bloodiest', *maltzissa 'sweetest', *nartuissa 'rightmost'.

Both comparative and superlative follow the second declension, regardless of the original adjective's declension class.

Numerals

Cardinal numerals

Cardinal numerals behave pretty much like adjectives. The basic numerals are:

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	20	100
*mana	*thôi	*tsari	*pfatsi	*pfãti	*pfatti	*tsarti	*thôti	*mãti	*pfali	*ratsa	*khãtha

Of these, *mana, *ratsa and *khãtha are declined like first declension singular adjectives; all others are declined like first declension plural adjectives. Other numerals are formed by compounding, e.g. *tsari khãtha thôi ratsa mãti '3*100+2*20+9 = 349'. All cardinal numbers except *mana are used with plural nouns.

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by replacing the final vowel of the cardinal by the suffix *-an-, they are declined as second declension adjectives, e.g. *tsarana/tsarania/tsarã 'third'. '1st' and '2nd' are irregular: '1st' is *antsana, '2nd' is *pfalkuna.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Proto-Alpianic has 1st and 2nd person pronouns; the function of third person pronouns is taken by demonstratives (see next subsection).

	First person		Second person
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*môa	*môi	*tsôa	*tsôi
Genitive	*môe	*môje	*tsôe	*tsôje
Dative	*mô	*môjo	*tsô	*tsôjo
Accusative	*môã	*môẽ	*tsôã	*tsôẽ

Demonstratives

Demonstratives distinguish three genders and two degrees of deixis ('this' and 'that').

Proximal demonstrative ('this'):

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*asa	*asi	*asia	*asi	*atsa	*atso
Genitive	*ase	*asie	*asie	*asie	*atso	*atsalo
Dative	*aso	*asio	*asio	*asio	*atso	*atsalo
Accusative	*asã	*asẽ	*asiã	*asiẽ	*atsa	*atso

Distal demonstrative ('that'):

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*kxasa	*kxasi	*kxasia	*kxasi	*kxatsa	*kxatso
Genitive	*kxase	*kxasie	*kxasie	*kxasie	*kxatso	*kxatsalo
Dative	*kxaso	*kxasio	*kxasio	*kxasio	*kxatso	*kxatsalo
Accusative	*kxasã	*kxasẽ	*kxasiã	*kxasiẽ	*kxatsa	*kxatso

Interrogative and relative pronouns

There is a distinction between *pfa 'who' and *mana 'what'.

	Who?	What?
Nominative	*pfa	*mana
Genitive	*pfe	*mano
Dative	*pfo	*mano
Accusative	*pfã	*mana

Prepositions

Grammatical relations other than subject, direct object, indirect object and possessor are expressed by prepositions. Most prepositions are used with the dative case. A few, marked with (G) in the list below and in the lexicon, are used with the genitive case.

Local prepositions

	At	From	To
General	*la	*ta	*na
In	*ãto	*ãta	*ãtã
On	*raso	*rasa	*rasã
Under	*talo	*tala	*talã
Near	*naro	*nara	*narã

Other prepositions

With (comitative)	*pfã (G)
By/With (instrumental)	*pi
Without	*misi
For	*pfari
Against	*tã

Verbs

Verbs in Proto-Alpianic are inflected for tense and mood, and the person and number of the subject. There are two tenses, present and past, expressed by verb inflection, and two further tenses, future and conditional, expressed periphrastically with the auxiliary *phamo 'to come' and the infinitive. There are also four perfect tenses to match these, which are formed with the auxiliary *krapo 'to have' and the past participle. The moods are indicative (unmarked), subjunctive, optative and imperative.

A peculiarity of Proto-Alpianic is that plural verb forms are also used if the direct object is definite and plural, regardless of the number of the subject.

Present tense

The present tense is formed by suffixing personal endings to the stem.

Example: *laro 'to sing'

	Singular	Plural
First person	*larã	*larẽ
Second person	*lara	*lari
Third person	*lare	*lari

Past tense

The past tense uses the same personal endings, but the stem is modified according to the following rules:

1. If the stem ends in an obstruent, this is replaced by a homorganic geminate nasal (*h becomes *nn).
2. If the stem already ends in a nasal, this is geminated.
3. If the stem ends in a liquid or a vowel, *-n- is suffixed.

Example: *laro 'to sing'

	Singular	Plural
First person	*larnã	*larnẽ
Second person	*larna	*larni
Third person	*larne	*larni

Future tense

The future tense is formed with the present tense of *phamo 'to come' and the infinitive.

Example: *laro 'to sing'

	Singular	Plural
First person	*phamã laro	*phamẽ laro
Second person	*phama laro	*phami laro
Third person	*phame laro	*phami laro

Conditional tense

The conditional is formed with the past tense of *phamo 'to come' and the infinitive. Example: *laro 'to sing'

	Singular	Plural
First person	*phammã laro	*phammẽ laro
Second person	*phamma laro	*phammi laro
Third person	*phamme laro	*phammi laro

The perfect tenses

The perfect tenses are present perfect, past perfect, future perfect and conditional perfect. They are formed with the auxiliary *krapo 'to have' and the past participle, which agrees with the subject in gender and is in the accusative case.

Example: *laro 'to sing'

	Present perfect		Past perfect		Future perfect		Conditional perfect
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	*krapã laranã	*krapẽ laranã	*krammã laranã	*krammẽ laranã	*phamã laranã krapo	*phamẽ laranã krapo	*phammã laranã krapo	*phammẽ laranã krapo
Second person	*krapa laranã	*krapi laranã	*kramma laranã	*krammi laranã	*phama laranã krapo	*phami laranã krapo	*phamma laranã krapo	*phammi laranã krapo
Third person	*krape laranã	*krapi laranã	*kramme laranã	*krammi laranã	*phame laranã krapo	*phami laranã krapo	*phamme laranã krapo	*phammi laranã krapo

Subjunctive

The subjunctive is formed by adding the suffix *-f- between the stem and the personal endings. (If the stem ends in an obstruent, the suffix is *-uf-.)

Example: *laro 'to sing'

	Singular	Plural
First person	*larfã	*larfẽ
Second person	*larfa	*larfi
Third person	*larfe	*larfi

Optative

The optative is formed by adding the suffix *-ij- between the stem and the personal endings.

Example: *laro 'to sing'

	Singular	Plural
First person	*larijã	*larijẽ
Second person	*larija	*lariji
Third person	*larije	*lariji

Imperative

The imperative is formed with the suffix *-ti: *larti! 'sing!". If the stem ends in an obstruent, the suffix is *-iti.

Passive

The passive voice is formed with the auxiliary *sthano 'to stand' and the past particple, which agrees with the subject in gender and is in accusative case, e.g. *tsa lare sthane larã 'The song is sung'.

Infinitive

The infinitive is formed with the suffix *-o: *laro 'to sing'.

Participles

The present participle is formed with the suffix *-antsa/-antsia-/-ã (masculine/feminine/neuter). The past participle is formed with the suffix *-atsa/-atsia-/-e (masculine/feminine/neuter). The participles are declined as second declension adjectives.

Derivation

Noun-forming suffixes

The agent of a verb is formed by a suffix that is *-iara if the verb stem ends in an obstruent, and *-jara otherwise, e.g. *larjara 'singer', *pathiara 'someone who beats'.

The instrument is formed by a suffix that is *-io (gen. *-ialo) if the verb stem ends in an obstruent, and *-jo (gen. *-jalo) otherwise, e.g. *saĺjo 'wing', *pathio 'cudgel'.

Diminutives of nouns are formed with the following suffixes:

Gender	After obstruent	After other sounds
Masculine	*-iana	*-jana
Feminine	*-iania	*-jania
Neuter	*-iã	*-jã

A suffix identical in form is used to form words for descendants. An example of this is the reconstructible ethnonym *alpiana, lit. 'descendant of the mountains'.

Both suffixes are derived from the word *jana 'child'.

Syntax

Morphosyntactic alignment

Proto-Alpianic is a nominative-accusative language. However, the predicate noun in a copular construction ('X is Y') is in the accusative case, not in the nominative. That this is nevertheless not a transitive clause can be seen from the fact that this construction cannot be passivized.

Another peculiarity of Proto-Alpianic is that neuter transitive subjects are avoided. Instead, such sentences are passivized, with the neuter subject marked with the instrumental preposition *pi.

The noun phrase

In the Proto-Alpianic noun phrase, adjectives and genitive noun phrases consisting of a single noun or pronouns precede the noun, while longer genitive noun phrases, prepositional phrases and relative clauses follow. The article always comes first.

The main clause

The main clause follows the verb-second (V2) rule: the finite verb is always in the second position after the first constituent. This first constituent is in most cases the subject, but it can also be a direct or indirect object, a prepositional phrase or an adverb.

In a "yes/no" question, the first constituent is the interrogative marker *ma which is followed by the finite verb. In a wh-question, the first constituent is the question word, followed by the finite verb.

If the main clause contains a periphrastic verb construction (perfect or passive), the auxiliary is in the second position and the infinite form of the lexical verb at the end of the clause.

Subordinate clauses

Subordinate clauses, such as relative and complement clauses, are verb-final. In a periphrastic construction, the auxiliary is the last word in the clause, preceded by the infinite lexical verb.

Lexicon

Abbreviations

• adj. adjective.
• adv. adverb.
• art. artucle.
• conj. conjunction.
• f. feminine noun.
• m. masculine noun.
• n. neuter noun.
• num. numeral.
• prep. preposition.
• pron. pronoun.
• v. verb.

A

• *afa m. river.
• *afã afano n. water.
• *aka v. to drive.
• *alpa m. mountain.
• *anara m. man.
• *ara adj. high.
• *aria f. sun.
• *arne arnaso n. summer.
• *arpfalkha m. eagle.
• *arô arô n. wound.
• *aru aruto n. blood.
• *asa asia atsa pron. this.
• *ato v. to bite.

Ã

• *ãta prep. out of.
• *ãtã prep. into.
• *ãto prep. in.

F

• *falfa m. butterfly.
• *falia f. heart.
• *falta adj. old.
• *fana m. spirit.
• *farkha n. cloud.
• *farta n. law.
• *farte fartaso n. spring.
• *farto v. to grow.
• *fãta m. wind.
• *fãte fãtaso n. winter.

H

• *hala n. salt.
• *hale halaso n. health.
• *halo v. to heal.

I

• *isa m. star.
• *iso v. to sparkle.

J

• *jafa adj. young.
• *jana m. child.

K

• *kamuka m. chamois.
• *kańua m. mountain imp.
• *kara adj. old.
• *kãpa m. goat.
• *kãsa m. goose.
• *kila adj. yellow.
• *klasa n. wood.
• *klurma m. ear.
• *kluso v. to hear.
• *krapo v. to have.
• *kratho v. to scratch.
• *krisa adj. hot.
• *kruxa n. gorge.
• *krupo v. to dig.

Kh

• *khalsa adj. red.
• *khano v. to be able to.
• *khanu n. joint.
• *khara m. friend.
• *kharo v. to love.
• *khassa n. house.
• *khatsa m. cat.
• *khãtha num. 100.

Kx

• *kxara n. stone.
• *kxasa kxasia kxatsa pron. that.
• *kxôsa n. neck.

L

• *la prep. at.
• *lakxa m. salmon.
• *lańa adj. white.
• *laro v. to sing.
• *lêsa adj. green.
• *likxo v. to wash.
• *lôpia f. cow.
• *lôxa m. fire.

M

• *makha makhia makho adj. big.
• *malia f. bee.
• *malfa m. horse.
• *malke malkaso n. autumn.
• *mana pron. what.
• *mana num. 1.
• *mano v. to think.
• *mare maraso n. death.
• *maro v. to die.
• *mato v. to eat.
• *mato matalo n. food.
• *mãja f. mother.
• *mãsa m. mind.
• *mãti num. 9.
• *mira m. son.
• *misa m. mouse.
• *misi prep. without.
• *môa pron. I.
• *môtsa n. honey.
• *môtsia môtsio adj. sweet.
• *musa m. mouth.

N

• *na prep. to.
• *nara prep. from near.
• *narã prep. to near.
• *naro prep. near.
• *narta adj. hard.
• *nartua nartu adj. right (direction).
• *natta m. duck.
• *nâria f. soul.
• *nôa adj. new.

Ô

• *ôfa m. swan.
• *ôpa m. ancestor.
• *ôsa n. eternity.

P

• *para m. boy.
• *paro v. to carry.
• *pathio pathialo n. cudgel.
• *patho v. to beat.
• *parua adj. blue.
• *pãti n. ribbon.
• *pãto v. to bind.
• *pêna n. bone.
• *pi prep. by, with (instrumental).
• *plajo v. to flee.
• *plaso v. to blow.
• *prajo v. to pursue.
• *praka adj. cold.
• *prako v. to bend.
• *prana adj. brown.
• *prato v. to marry.
• *praxa m. frog.
• *pritho v. to break.
• *pusa n. lip.

Pf

• *pfa pron. who.
• *pfale pfalaso n. lowland.
• *pfalo v. to feel.
• *pfamo v. to come, to arrive.
• *pfana m. dog.
• *pfane pfanaso n. shape.
• *pfano v. to shape.
• *pfasa adj. early.
• *pfali num. 10.
• *pfata n. foot.
• *pfatti num. 6.
• *pfatsi num. 4.
• *pfã (G) prep. with (comitative).
• *pfańa n. hand.
• *pfãti num. 5.
• *pfirkha m. songbird.
• *pfẽkha m. finch.
• *pfisa m. fish.
• *pfixa adj. small.
• *pfôka m. falcon.
• *pfukala m. bird.

Ph

• *phajo v. to live.
• *phamo v. to come.
• *phassa m. person.

R

• *rasa prep. down from.
• *rasã prep. onto.
• *raso prep. on.
• *rassa m. head.
• *ratsa num. 20.
• *rãpa n. belly.
• *rãkha n. arm.
• *rikã rikano n. rain.
• *ruta n. blood.
• *rutiana rutiania rutiano adj. bloody.

S

• *sa art. the (m.).
• *saĺjo saĺjalo n. wing.
• *saĺo v. to fly.
• *sanja m. moon.
• *sanjo sanjalo n. month.
• *santa adj. soft.
• *santua santu adj. left (direction).
• *saria f. woman.
• *sfalta adj. black.
• *sfamio v. to swim.
• *sia art. the (f.).
• *silma m. eye.
• *silo v. to see.
• *siria f. daughter.
• *skafa m. sheep.
• *smako v. to taste.
• *smamma m. tongue.
• *snaka m. snake.
• *stakha m. deer.
• *stratho v. to stop.
• *svãtsa n. tail.

T

• *ta prep. from.
• *tala prep. from under.
• *talã prep. to under.
• *talo prep. under.
• *tara n. day.
• *taro v. to give.
• *tã prep. against.
• *tiamia f. earth.
• *trafo v. to take.
• *trasa n. path.
• *trińo v. to drink.

Th

• *thafo adj. warm.
• *thiafa m. sky.
• *thôi num. 2.
• *thôti num. 8.
• *thupe thupaso n. gift.

Ts

• *tsa tsalo art. the (n.)
• *tsari num. 3.
• *tsarti num. 7.
• *tsasa m. father.
• *tsôa pron. you.