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'''Sarim''' (Sarim: '''Sarim vār''') is a language spoken by most of the population of Sarimis, as well as several its satellite nations.
'''Sarim''' (Sarim: '''sarimengo''' 'our language', '''sarime Kansū''' 'Language of Kansu') is one of the larger languages of the Ke:tic family. It is a strongly head-initial, largely agglutinating ergative language.  
 


== Phonology ==
== Phonology ==


'''Consonants'''
===Phoneme Inventory===


{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|'''Labial'''
|'''Dental'''
|'''Alveolar'''
|'''Palatal'''
|'''Velar'''
|'''Glottal'''
|-
|'''Plosive/Affricate'''
|'''b''' /p/ '''p''' /pʰ/
|'''d''' /t/ '''t''' /tʰ/
|
|
|'''g''' /k/ '''k''' /kʰ/
|-
|'''Fricative'''
|
|'''th''' /θ/
|'''s''' /s/
|'''hy''' /ç/
|
|'''h''' /h/
|-
|'''Nasal'''
|'''m''' /m/
|
|'''n''' /n/
|'''ny''' /ɲ/
|'''ŋ''' /ŋ/
|
|-
|'''Liquid'''
|
|
|'''r''' /ɾ/ '''l''' /l/
|'''y''' /j/
|'''w''' /w/
|
|}


-Plosives <nowiki>/p t c k kʷ/ <p t ch c cu> </nowiki>
-Nasals <nowiki>/m n/ <m n> </nowiki>
-Fricatives <nowiki> /v θ s h xʷ/ <v th s h hu> </nowiki>
-Rhotic/Approximants: <nowiki> /r l j/ <r l y> </nowiki>




'''Vowels'''
'''Vowels'''


<nowiki> /i e a o i: e: a: o:/ <i e a o ī ē ā ō> </nowiki>
<table><tr><td>'''i''' /i/ '''ī''' /i:/ </td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>'''u''' /u/ '''ū''' /u:/</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''e''' /ɛ/ '''ē''' /e:/ </td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>'''o''' /ɒ/ '''ō'''/o:/</td></tr> 
<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>'''a''' /ɐ/ '''ā''' /ɐ:/</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></table>


Sarim also has the dipthongs '''ai au ei eu oi ou''' /ai au ei eu oi ou/, all falling.


'''Syllable Structure'''
===Syllable Structure===


The basic syllable structure in Sarim is (C)V(C), with the vowel nucleus being the only compulsory component, with the following caveats:
Sarim has a (C)(C)V(C) syllable structure. Onset clusters are made up of one of /p t k pʰ tʰ kʰ θ s h/ + /r/. Only /p t k m n θ s h l/ can occur in coda position. Note that word-internally coda /θ/ merges with /s/. Note that long vowels do not occur in long syllables.
 
The only geminate consonants that can occur are /m: n: s: j: r: l:/.
 
/h/ and /xʷ/ do not occur after after other consonants.
 
Labio-velar consonants do not occur before other consonants, nor do they occur word-finally. 
 
/np/ does not occur, having merged with /mp/ at an earlier stage.
 
 
'''Allophony'''


===Allophony===
   
   
-/r/ is realised as an approximant [ɻ] before a vowel or word-finally, but [ɮ] before a consonant.
- /n/ assimilates to the point of articulation of any following consonant, e.g. /np/ [mp]. Note that /m ŋ/ do not assimilate to the same point of articulation as the following consonant. (Note that /ŋ/ is written as '''n''' before a velar consonant, since ambiguity is not an issue).


-/h/ is often realised [x] before a consonant.  
- Coda stops are realised as unreleased.  


- All stops are voiceless and unaspirated, except immediately following a voiceless consonant, where they tend to become voiced.  
- /k kʰ/ may be realised as [ʧ ʧʰ] before front vowels.  


- /n/ is realised at the same point of articulation as a following consonant: /nk/ = [ŋg]
- /h/ often strengthens to [x] between vowels.
   
   
-/c/ is realised as either palatal affricates  [cç] or[ʨ], or even the postalveolar affricate [ʧ], especially among younger speakers.
- /r/ is realised as a tap [ɾ] word-initially and in onset clusters, and as an approximant [ɻ] between vowels.  


-Before /s/, nasals tend to be realised as a sequence nasal+voiceless stop, e.g. /ms/ = [mps].  
- Unstressed short /i ɐ u/ are realised as [ɪ ə ʊ].


-Short vowels tend to be realised as lax [ɪ ɛ ɐ ɔ ] in all positions except word finally.
===Stress and Prosody===


-Long /o:/ tends to be realised as [u:], especially in open syllables and word-finally. Other long vowels tend to be pronounced close to their cardinal values.  
Sarim is a mora-timed language: syllables take up a certain amount of time based on their nucleus. Open syllables with a short vowel take up one mora; closed syllables with a short vowel, and open syllables with a long vowel or diphthong, take up two morae, whilst closed syllables with a diphthong take up three morae.  


Stress falls on the syllable containing the antepenultimate mora, or leftmost mora in words with less than three morae.


'''Stress'''


== Nominal Morphology ==


Stress in Sarim is non-phonemic ,always falling on the antepenultimate syllable of a word with more than three syllables, and the first syllable of bisyllabic words. Monosyllabic lexical words are stressed, but grammatical particles are not.
Sarim nouns are marked for Absolutive and Oblique cases, as well as singular and plural number. The unmarked form of the noun is the absolutive singular: '''yad''' - man, '''kare''' - sorghum '''ari''' - town, '''nasu''' - child, '''sau''' - dog, '''prasnā''' - number.  


==Nominal Morphology==  
===The Plural===


The plural is marked with '''-ma''': '''yadma, arima, nasuma, sauma, prasnā'''.  The oblique plural is marked irregularly by '''-mē'''.


Sarim nouns come in two genders, animate and inanimate (the difference is largely semantic: animate nouns include people, gods and other supernatural beings, animals, celestial bodies, as well as a few body parts such as hand, heart, brain, and mouth; inanimate nouns are everything else)  are declined for three cases: absolutive, ergative, genitive, and oblique, aswell as singular and plural numbers. With inanimate nouns, the oblique and ergative cases merge - briefly, this is because Proto-Ke:tic was an active-stative language where only animate nouns had a seperate agentive marking. As the language became ergative the agentive took over this function for animate nouns, whereas for inanimate nouns the instrumental, which later merged into the oblique case, took over this function. It should be noted that in several western dialects of Sarim the distinct ergative case marking has been lost in animate nouns aswell, and the oblique has taken over this function.
Plural marking is mandatory with animate nouns; with inanimate nouns marking plurality is option, and inanimate nouns are never marked as plural if followed by a number or an adjective marking number such as '''hou''' - many.


There are four 'declensions' in each gender, based on the end of the noun stem. The first declension consists of stems ending in a single consonant, the second of stems ending in a short vowel, the third of those ending in a long vowel, and the fourth of stems ending in two consonants.
===Absolutive Case===


'''Animate Nouns'''
The absolutive case is the unmarked form of the noun. The absolutive marks the subject of an intransitive verb and the patient of a transitive verb. It is also used with certain prepositions, as noted in the syntax section.


===Oblique Case===


The Proto-Ke:ti animate noun suffixes:
The underlying marker of the Oblique case is *'''-i''', which manifests itself in several ways:


Plural: -*əm-
- After a monosyllabic word ending in a vowel, and after long vowels, it is marked with -yi: '''sauyi''' - dog-OBL; '''prasnāyi''' - number-OBL.


Agentive: -*(e)s
- Nouns ending in short '''a, e''' or '''o''' lose the final vowel and add -i: '''kari''' - sorghum-OBL


Locative/Instrumental: -*(ə)ʔə
- Nouns ending in a consonant add -i: '''yadi''' - man-OBL


Genitive: -*xa:i
- Final -u and -i become -ī: '''arī''' - man-OBL;; '''nasī''' child-OBL


The oblique is used with the majority of Sarim's prepositions. Its other main use is to mark the agent of transitive verbs in most circumstances. However, in the follow circumstances the agent of a transitive verb is marked as absolutive, primarily:


First Declension:
- If the agent is indefinite: '''kithīne sau arimē''' ''see-IMPF-TRANS DOG-0 MAN-PLUR-OBL'' 'the men saw the dog', but: '''kithīne sau arima''' ''see-IMPF-TRANS DOG-0 MAN-PLUR'' '(some) men saw the dog'.


'''yat''' - woman
- If the agent is nullar in number: '''makithīne sau ari mau''' ''NEG-see-IMPF-TRANS dog-0 man-0 NEG''  'no men saw the dog'.


{|
- If the agent is significantly more animate than the patient: '''ramnagin kare ari''' ''harvest-PERF-TRANS sorghum-0 man-0'' 'the man harvested the sorghum', but '''nawēne hrath arī''' ''love-IMPF-TRANS woman-0 man-ERG'' 'the man loves the woman'.
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-  
||Absolutive  ||'''yat''' ||'''yato'''
|-
||Ergative  ||'''yatas''' ||'''yatama'''  
|-  
||Oblique  ||'''yata''' ||'''yatō''' 
|-
||Genitive  ||'''yate''' ||'''yatō'''
|}


===Possession Marking===


Second Declension:
Sarim has a range of possessive suffixes, from previously cliticised pronouns. Vowels in brackets are used if the clitics follow a consonants, whilst the third person possessive marker has three allomorphs: it lengthens final short vowels, is '''-a''' after consonants, and '''-ya''' after long vowels and dipthongs. Long vowels before '''-n''' and '''-th''' become short.
 
'''imne''' - heart


{|
{|
|| ||Singular ||Plural  
| | Singular || Plural
|-
||Absolutive  ||'''imne''' ||'''imnen'''
|-
||Ergative  ||'''imnes''' ||'''imnema'''
|-
||Oblique  ||'''imnē''' ||'''imnema''' 
|-
|-
||Genitive  ||'''imnē''' ||'''imneme'''
||1st Person || '''-(e)n''' ||'''-(e)ngo
|}
 
 
Third Declension:
 
'''nathī''' - child
 
{|
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-  
||Absolutive  ||'''nathī''' ||'''nathin'''
|-
|-
||Ergative  ||'''nathis''' ||'''nathīma'''
||2nd Person ||'''-(e)th''' ||'''-(e)sgo'''
|-  
||Oblique  ||'''nathī''' ||'''nathīma'''
|-
|-
||Genitive  ||'''nathīhe''' ||'''nathīme'''
||3rd Person ||'''-(y)a/:''' ||'''-(y)a/:'''
|}  
|}


The possessive suffixes follow case and plural marking:


Fourth Declension:
'''hrathen''' 'my wife'
'''nasumango''' 'our children'
'''karē''' 'his sorghum'
'''ti saumeth''' 'from your dogs (OBL)'


'''inta''' - the Sun


{|
==Verbal Morphology==
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-
||Absolutive  ||'''inta''' ||'''into'''
|-
||Ergative  ||'''intas''' ||'''intama'''
|-
||Oblique  ||'''intā''' ||'''intō''' 
|-
||Genitive  ||'''inte''' ||'''intō'''
|} 


The citation form of Sarim verbs is the root, which may end in a vowel, a consonant, or a permissible medial cluster: '''kithi-''' 'look at, see'; '''edn-''' 'go'; '''aut-''' 'eat', '''mo-''' 'break'.


===The Infinitive===


'''Inanimate Nouns'''
The infinitive is the only non-finite form a Sarim verb has. The infinitive always ends in '''-ni''', and has three allomorphs:


Proto-Ke:ti Inanimate Noun Affixes:
-After a monosyllabic root ending in a vowel, -'''yini''': '''moyini''' - to break.


Plural: -*jə-  
- After a consonant, '''-ini''': '''autini''' - to eat; '''ednini''' - to go.


- After a vowel, '''-ni''': '''kithini''' - to look at, to see.




First Declension:
===Voice===


'''vār''' - throat, language
As well as the unmarked active voice, Sarim has antipassive and a reflexive voices marked on the verb. Voice marking always immediately follows the verb stem.


{|
- The '''antipassive''' is marked by '''-ū'''', which displaces any stem-final short vowel. Monosyllabic stems ending in a vowel and stems ending in diphthongs or long vowels have '''-yū''' instead: '''kithū-''' 'see something', '''ednū-''' - make someone go, '''autū-''' 'eat something, '''moyū''' 'break something'.
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-  
||Absolutive  ||'''vār''' ||'''vāri'''  
|-  
||Obl/Erg  ||'''vāra''' ||'''vārī'''
|-
||Genitive  ||'''vāre''' ||'''vārī'''
|}


- The '''reflexive''' is marked by '''-(a)s-''', with an epenthetic '''-a-''' only occuring if the stem ends in a cluster or a consonant that does not occur in coda position: '''kithis-''' 'see oneself', '''ednas-''' 'go', '''autas-''' 'eat oneself', '''mos-''' 'break oneself'.


Second Declension:
Because verbs marked for a voice other than active can take the infinitive too (e.g. '''kithūni''' - to see something), it has been argued that voice is really more of a feature of derivational morphology.


'''Tamo''' - tree


{|
===Aspect===
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-
||Absolutive  ||'''tamo''' ||'''tamō'''
|-
||Obl/Erg  ||'''tamō''' ||'''tamoya''' 
|-
||Genitive  ||'''tamō''' ||'''tamoye'''
|}
 
 
Third Declension:
 
'''Machē''' - fort, town


{|
Sarim verbs are marked for three aspects: perfective, imperfective, and habitual.
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-
||Absolutive  ||'''machē''' ||'''machēya'''
|-
||Obl/Erg  ||'''machē''' ||'''machēyā''' 
|-
||Genitive  ||'''machēhe''' ||'''machēye'''
|}


- The imperfective is marked by '''-a'''. Stem final short vowels are lengthened, and the imperfective is zero-marked after stems ending in a long vowel or diphthong: '''kithī''' 'it is seen'; '''edna''' 'it goes'; '''auta''' 'it is eaten'; '''mō''' 'it breaks'.


Fourth Declension
- The perfective is marked by '''-(i)gi''': '''kithigi''' 'it was looked at'; '''ednigi''' 'it went'; '''autigi''' 'all of it is eaten'; '''mogi''' 'it broke completely'.


'''huansa''' - house
- The habitual


{|
[[Category: Conlangs]]
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-
||Absolutive  ||'''huansa''' ||'''huansi'''
|-
||Obl/Erg  ||'''huansā''' ||'''huansī''' 
|-
||Genitive  ||'''huanse''' ||'''huansī'''
|}

Latest revision as of 14:24, 17 July 2011

Sarim (Sarim: sarimengo 'our language', sarime Kansū 'Language of Kansu') is one of the larger languages of the Ke:tic family. It is a strongly head-initial, largely agglutinating ergative language.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive/Affricate b /p/ p /pʰ/ d /t/ t /tʰ/ g /k/ k /kʰ/
Fricative th /θ/ s /s/ hy /ç/ h /h/
Nasal m /m/ n /n/ ny /ɲ/ ŋ /ŋ/
Liquid r /ɾ/ l /l/ y /j/ w /w/


Vowels

i /i/ ī /i:/ u /u/ ū /u:/
e /ɛ/ ē /e:/ o /ɒ/ ō/o:/
a /ɐ/ ā /ɐ:/

Sarim also has the dipthongs ai au ei eu oi ou /ai au ei eu oi ou/, all falling.

Syllable Structure

Sarim has a (C)(C)V(C) syllable structure. Onset clusters are made up of one of /p t k pʰ tʰ kʰ θ s h/ + /r/. Only /p t k m n θ s h l/ can occur in coda position. Note that word-internally coda /θ/ merges with /s/. Note that long vowels do not occur in long syllables.

Allophony

- /n/ assimilates to the point of articulation of any following consonant, e.g. /np/ [mp]. Note that /m ŋ/ do not assimilate to the same point of articulation as the following consonant. (Note that /ŋ/ is written as n before a velar consonant, since ambiguity is not an issue).

- Coda stops are realised as unreleased.

- /k kʰ/ may be realised as [ʧ ʧʰ] before front vowels.

- /h/ often strengthens to [x] between vowels.

- /r/ is realised as a tap [ɾ] word-initially and in onset clusters, and as an approximant [ɻ] between vowels.

- Unstressed short /i ɐ u/ are realised as [ɪ ə ʊ].

Stress and Prosody

Sarim is a mora-timed language: syllables take up a certain amount of time based on their nucleus. Open syllables with a short vowel take up one mora; closed syllables with a short vowel, and open syllables with a long vowel or diphthong, take up two morae, whilst closed syllables with a diphthong take up three morae.

Stress falls on the syllable containing the antepenultimate mora, or leftmost mora in words with less than three morae.


Nominal Morphology

Sarim nouns are marked for Absolutive and Oblique cases, as well as singular and plural number. The unmarked form of the noun is the absolutive singular: yad - man, kare - sorghum ari - town, nasu - child, sau - dog, prasnā - number.

The Plural

The plural is marked with -ma: yadma, arima, nasuma, sauma, prasnā. The oblique plural is marked irregularly by -mē.

Plural marking is mandatory with animate nouns; with inanimate nouns marking plurality is option, and inanimate nouns are never marked as plural if followed by a number or an adjective marking number such as hou - many.

Absolutive Case

The absolutive case is the unmarked form of the noun. The absolutive marks the subject of an intransitive verb and the patient of a transitive verb. It is also used with certain prepositions, as noted in the syntax section.

Oblique Case

The underlying marker of the Oblique case is *-i, which manifests itself in several ways:

- After a monosyllabic word ending in a vowel, and after long vowels, it is marked with -yi: sauyi - dog-OBL; prasnāyi - number-OBL.

- Nouns ending in short a, e or o lose the final vowel and add -i: kari - sorghum-OBL

- Nouns ending in a consonant add -i: yadi - man-OBL

- Final -u and -i become -ī: arī - man-OBL;; nasī child-OBL

The oblique is used with the majority of Sarim's prepositions. Its other main use is to mark the agent of transitive verbs in most circumstances. However, in the follow circumstances the agent of a transitive verb is marked as absolutive, primarily:

- If the agent is indefinite: kithīne sau arimē see-IMPF-TRANS DOG-0 MAN-PLUR-OBL 'the men saw the dog', but: kithīne sau arima see-IMPF-TRANS DOG-0 MAN-PLUR '(some) men saw the dog'.

- If the agent is nullar in number: makithīne sau ari mau NEG-see-IMPF-TRANS dog-0 man-0 NEG 'no men saw the dog'.

- If the agent is significantly more animate than the patient: ramnagin kare ari harvest-PERF-TRANS sorghum-0 man-0 'the man harvested the sorghum', but nawēne hrath arī love-IMPF-TRANS woman-0 man-ERG 'the man loves the woman'.

Possession Marking

Sarim has a range of possessive suffixes, from previously cliticised pronouns. Vowels in brackets are used if the clitics follow a consonants, whilst the third person possessive marker has three allomorphs: it lengthens final short vowels, is -a after consonants, and -ya after long vowels and dipthongs. Long vowels before -n and -th become short.

Singular Plural
1st Person -(e)n -(e)ngo
2nd Person -(e)th -(e)sgo
3rd Person -(y)a/: -(y)a/:

The possessive suffixes follow case and plural marking:

hrathen 'my wife' nasumango 'our children' karē 'his sorghum' ti saumeth 'from your dogs (OBL)'


Verbal Morphology

The citation form of Sarim verbs is the root, which may end in a vowel, a consonant, or a permissible medial cluster: kithi- 'look at, see'; edn- 'go'; aut- 'eat', mo- 'break'.

The Infinitive

The infinitive is the only non-finite form a Sarim verb has. The infinitive always ends in -ni, and has three allomorphs:

-After a monosyllabic root ending in a vowel, -yini: moyini - to break.

- After a consonant, -ini: autini - to eat; ednini - to go.

- After a vowel, -ni: kithini - to look at, to see.


Voice

As well as the unmarked active voice, Sarim has antipassive and a reflexive voices marked on the verb. Voice marking always immediately follows the verb stem.

- The antipassive is marked by -ū', which displaces any stem-final short vowel. Monosyllabic stems ending in a vowel and stems ending in diphthongs or long vowels have -yū instead: kithū- 'see something', ednū- - make someone go, autū- 'eat something, moyū 'break something'.

- The reflexive is marked by -(a)s-, with an epenthetic -a- only occuring if the stem ends in a cluster or a consonant that does not occur in coda position: kithis- 'see oneself', ednas- 'go', autas- 'eat oneself', mos- 'break oneself'.

Because verbs marked for a voice other than active can take the infinitive too (e.g. kithūni - to see something), it has been argued that voice is really more of a feature of derivational morphology.


Aspect

Sarim verbs are marked for three aspects: perfective, imperfective, and habitual.

- The imperfective is marked by -a. Stem final short vowels are lengthened, and the imperfective is zero-marked after stems ending in a long vowel or diphthong: kithī 'it is seen'; edna 'it goes'; auta 'it is eaten'; mō 'it breaks'.

- The perfective is marked by -(i)gi: kithigi 'it was looked at'; ednigi 'it went'; autigi 'all of it is eaten'; mogi 'it broke completely'.

- The habitual

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