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| = intro =
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| '''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
| | en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext |
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| '''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
| | = Heading 1 = |
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| = phonology =
| | * In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}. |
| '''kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is word final.
| | * In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}. |
| | * {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation. |
| | * {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation. |
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| == consonants ==
| | Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
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| !
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| ! Labial
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| ! Coronal
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| ! Dorsal
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| |-align=center
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| ! Nasal
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| | m
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| | n
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| |-align=center
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| ! Plosive
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| | p
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| | t
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| | k
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| |-align=center
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| ! Fricative
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| | s
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| |-align=center
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| ! Approximant
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| | w
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| | l
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| | j ('''y''')
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| |}
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| == vowels == | | == Heading 2 == |
| {| class="wikitable"
| | === Heading 3 === |
| |-
| | ==== Heading 4 ==== |
| !''Vowels''!!Front!!Back
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| |- align="center"
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| !Close
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| |i||u
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| |- align="center"
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| !Mid
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| |e||o
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| |- align="center"
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| !Open
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| | colspan="2" |a
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| |}
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| === diphthongs ===
| | <nowiki> |
| There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.
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| == syllable structure ==
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| All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.
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| == phonotactics ==
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| A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.
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| == syllables ==
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
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| |-−
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| ! a || ka || sa || ta || na || pa || ma || ya || la || wa
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| |-
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| ! i || ki || si || ti || ni || pi || mi || || li || wi
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| |-
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| ! u || ku || su || tu || nu || pu || mu || yu || lu ||
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| |-
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| ! e || ke || se || te || ne || pe || me || ye || le || we
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| |-
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| ! o || ko || so || to || no || po || mo || yo || lo ||
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| |}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
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| |-−
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| ! a || ka || sa || ta || na || pa || ma || ya || la || wa
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| |-
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| ! i || ki || si || ti || ni || pi || mi || || li || wi
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| |-
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| ! u || ku || su || tu || nu || pu || mu || yu || lu ||
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| |}
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| === writing ===
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| [[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]
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| If desired, an adaptation of Hangul may be used to write '''Kalo'''.
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅇ</b></big></big></font>
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| : '''k n t l m p s -'''
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅘ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font>
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| : '''a ya e ye o wa yo u we wi yu - i'''
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| ==== Examples ====
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>와로 너 고머 사 </b></big></big></font>
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| : '''walo ne kome sa'''
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| : <small>1pl NEG eat FUT </small>
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| : ''We will not eat.''
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| [[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]
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| == allophony ==
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| The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
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| = Syntax =
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| [[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial. [[wp:Chinese_grammar|Chinese]] is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb. [[wp:Spanish_grammar|Spanish]] unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable. [[wp:English_grammar|English]] word order is almost exclusively SVO. [[wp:Hindustani_grammar|Hindi]] is primarily an SOV language.
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| Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
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| * '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
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| :
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| * '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
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| * '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
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| == questions ==
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| The interrogative particle '''ma''' (taken from Chinese ([[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.
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| === non-polar questions ===
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| {{col-begin}} | | {{col-begin}} |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''ma''' - what; which
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| * '''ma ko''' - who, whom
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| * '''ma koyo''' - whose, of whom
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| * '''ma tenpo''' - when
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ma loka''' - where
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| * '''ma moto''' - how
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| * '''ma laka''' - how much, how many
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| * '''ma sapa''' - why
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| {{col-end}}
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| === polar questions ===
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| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ma''' at the end of the sentence.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''wa wite le kasa'''
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| : <small>1S see PST house</small>
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| : ''I saw the house.''
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| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''ni wite le kasa ma'''
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| : <small>2S see PST house Q</small>
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| : ''Did you see the house?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| = Nouns =
| | ety |
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| Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
| | {{col-break}} |
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| == pronouns ==
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| '''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;" | |
| !
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| ! singular
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| ! plural
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| ! possessive
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| |-align=center
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| ! 1st person
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| | '''wa'''<br>I; me
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| | '''walo'''<br>we; us
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| | '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
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| |-align=center
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| ! 2nd person
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| | '''ni'''<br>you
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| | '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
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| | '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
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| |-align=center
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| ! 3rd person
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| | '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
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| | '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
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| | '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
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| |}
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| * '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
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| * '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
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| = Verbs =
| | abbs |
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| Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles. There are three basic tenses in Kalo, past, present, and future. The simple present is not marked, the past is marked by '''le''' from the Chinese particle ([[wiktionary:了|了]]), and the future is marked by '''sa''' from the Arabic construction ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
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| |-−
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| !tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
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| |present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
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| |-
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| |past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
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| |-
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| |future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
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| |-
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| |conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
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| |}
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| * '''wa kome le''' - <small>1s eat PST</small> - ''I ate.''
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| * '''aki koyo kome''' - <small>brother 3sg.GEN eat</small> - ''His brother eats/is eating.''
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| * '''nilo ne wite sa ko''' - <small>2pl NEG see FUT 3sg</small> - ''You all will not see her.''
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| Uncertainty is marked by '''ki, kisa''', or '''kile'''. These are taken from Spanish ([[wiktionary:quizá|quizá]]) and used across the three basic tenses. It can also act as a subordinating conjunction, and conditional constructions, “''if, whether''”. It is also used to express possibility or probability.
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| * '''tela wa ki ni wite ko''' - <small>tell 1s if 2s see 3s</small> - Tell me if you can see her.
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| * '''ki ni amo yawe te pu yuma ne inpo''' - <small>if 2sg like weather of today NEG important</small> - Whether you like today’s weather does not matter.
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| * '''kisa pu yuma yuwa''' - <small>maybe this day rain</small> - It may rain (later) today.
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| == positional verbs ==
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| '''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
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| * '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
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| * '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
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| = Particles =
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| == determiners ==
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| Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.
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| === deixis ===
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| * '''pu''' - this; these
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| * '''su''' - that; those
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| === amount ===
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| * '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
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| * '''kula''' - all; every; each
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| * '''ne''' - no; none; zero
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| * '''poka''' - some; several; a few
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| ::
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| * '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
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| * '''maso''' - more
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| === other-ness ===
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| * '''asi''' - such
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| * '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
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| * '''oto''' - other
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| * '''tonye''' - same
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| = Number =
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
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| |+
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| ! Kalo
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! Kalo
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| |-
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| | '''sunya''' || 0 || zero || '''na''' || 7 || seven
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| | '''wa''' || 1 || one || '''pa''' || 8 || eight
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| | '''li''' || 2 || two || '''nun''' || 9 || nine
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| | '''san''' || 3 || three || '''ye''' || 10 || ten
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| | '''si''' || 4 || four || '''aku''' / '''-ku''' || 100 || (one) hundred
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| | '''pen''' || 5 || five || '''mila''' || 1000 || (one) thousand
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| | '''we''' || 6 || six || '' '' || '' '' || '' ''
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| |}
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| When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
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| * '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
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| : <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
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| : ''She had two houses.''
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| * '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
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| : <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
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| : ''I see four men.''
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| == Higher Numbers ==
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| * '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
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| * '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
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| * '''liye''' - 20; twenty
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| * '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
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| * '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
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| * '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five
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| = lexicon =
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| The working lexicon for [[Kalo]].
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ARA''' - Arabic
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| * ELL - Greek
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| * '''ENG''' - English
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| * FRE - French
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| * GER - German
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| * '''HIN''' - Hindi
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| {{col-break}}
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| * JPN - Japanese
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| * KOR - Korean
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| * PIE - Proto-Indo-European
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| * '''SPA''' - Spanish
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| * TUR - Turkish
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| * '''ZHO''' - Mandarin
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| {{col-break}}
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| * ''adj'' - adjective
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| * ''n'' - noun
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| * ''num'' - number/numeral
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| * ''part'' - particle
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| * ''prep'' - preposition
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| * ''pro'' - pronoun
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| * ''v'' - verb
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| {{col-end}} | | {{col-end}} |
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| = phrasebook =
| | </nowiki> |
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| * wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
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| * en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language
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| == Essentials ==
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| | ===== Heading 5 ===== |
| | ====== Heading 6 ====== |
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| * '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]])
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| * '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is"
| | : = indentation |
| * '''ne''' - "no; it is not"
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| * '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me." | | * Item1 |
| * '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?] | | * Item4 |
| :: by extension "Do you mind?"
| | ** Sub-item 4 a) |
| * '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)." | | *** Sub-item 4 a) 1. |
| * '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK." | | **** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i) |
| | ** Sub-item 4 b) |
| | * Item5 |
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| == Greetings & Goodbyes ==
| | # Item1 |
| | # Item4 |
| | ## Sub-item 1 |
| | ### Sub-sub-item |
| | #### Sub-sub-sub-item |
| | ## Sub-item 2 |
| | # Item5 |
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| * '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
| | ; Term : Definition1 |
| * '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night"
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| * '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"
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| === Civilities ===
| | ; Term |
| | : Definition1 |
| | : Definition2 |
| | : Definition3 |
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| * '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?''
| | To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it. |
| ** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine."
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| ** '''...''' - "Not bad."
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| | Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''. |
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| | Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''. |
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| | '''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line. |
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| | For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}. |
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| * '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see'' | | * [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]] |
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| == problems ==
| | * [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]] |
