Liwadi: Syntax: Difference between revisions

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<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">THE  GRAMMAR OF LIWADI,</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">THE  GRAMMAR OF LIWADI,</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">sa Kenom Yimmor ne sa Kenom ne su Liwad</div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right:  
auto;"> صا کهنۉم ىاخکۉر نه صا کهنۉم نه صۆ  لىواظ </div>
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">'''sa Kenom Yaxkor ne sa Kenom ne su Liwad'''</div>


==Table of Phonemes==
==Table of Phonemes==
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; width:1600px;"
! IPA
! IPA
! /j/
! /m/
! /w/
! /n/
! /n/
! /m/
! /ŋ/
! /l/
! /p/
! /ʔ/
! /b/
! /ɸ/
! /β/
! /t/
! /t/
! /d/
! /d/
! /θ/
! /ð/
! /k/
! /g/
! /χ/
! /ɣ/
! /ʔ/
! /s/
! /s/
! /z/
! /z/
! /ʃ/
! /h/
! /w/
! /j/
! /ɾ/
! /ɾ/
! /h/
! /l/
! /p/
! /ɬ/
! /b/
! /ʦ/
! /k/
! /i/
! /g/
! /ŋ/
! /ä/
! /e/
! /e/
! /ɛ/
! /ɛ/
! /i/
! /ä/
! /ɪ/
! /o/
! /o/
! /u/
! /u/
|-
|-
! Latin
! Latin
| Y y
| M m
| W w
| N n
| N n
| M m
| Ŋ ŋ
| L l
| P p
| ʻ
| B b
| ṗ
| ḃ
| T t
| T t
| D d
| D d
| ṫ
| ḋ
| K k
| G g
| ḳ
| ġ
| ʻ
| S s
| S s
| Z z
| Z z
| Š š
| H h
| W w
| Y y
| R r
| R r
| H h
| L l
| P p
| ḷ
| B b
| Ś ś
| G g
| I i
| K k
| Ń ń
| A a
| E e
| E e
| ė
| ė
| I i
| A a
| ı
| O o
| O o
| U u
| U u
|-
|-
! Arabic
! Arabic
| ی <sup>{{Color|red|1}}</sup>
| م
| و
| ن
| ن
| م
| گ
| ل
| {{Color|blue|ٮ}}<br>1
| ﺏ
| ٺ
| ٻ
| {{Color|blue|ط}}<br>2
| ظ
| د
| ذ
| {{Color|blue|ک}}<br>3
| ݢ
| {{Color|blue|ٯ}}<br>4
| ڧ
| ع
| ع
| ط
| {{Color|blue|ص}}<br>5
| ظ
| ص
| ض
| ض
| ڝ
| {{Color|blue|ح}}<br>6
| {{Color|blue|و}}<br>7
| ي
| ر
| ر
| ح
| {{Color|blue|ل}}<br>8
| ٮ
| ݪ
| ﺏ
| ج
| ک
| ی 
| ݢ
| ه
| گ
| <sup>{{Color|red|2}}</sup>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ا
| ۉ
| ۆ
|-
! Name
| Mi<br>مى
| Ne<br>نه
| Ŋo<br>گۉ
| Pi<br>ٮى
| Bi<br>بى
| Ṗi<br>ٺى
| Ḃi<br>ٻى
| Te<br>طه
| De<br>ظه
| Ṫe<br>ده
| Ḋe<br>ذه
| Ko<br>کۉ
| Go<br>ݢۉ
| Ḳo<br>ٯۉ
| Ġo<br>ڧۉ
| ʻu<br>عۆ
| Sa<br>صا
| Za<br>ضا
| Ša<br>ڝا
| Hu<br>حۆ
| Wi<br>وى
| Yo<br>ىۉ
| Ra<br>را
| Le<br>له
| Ḷe<br>ݪه
| Śa<br>جا
| i<br>ى
| e<br>ه
| ė<br>
| a<br>ا
| o<br>ۉ
| u<br>ۆ
|}
|}
*<sup>{{Color|red|1}}</sup> The letters of the alphabet are arranged in the [[Wikipedia:Arabic alphabet#Alphabetic order|Maghrebian]] ''hijāʾī'' order.
*The consonants in {{Color|blue|blue}} are those used as numerals in the octal numeral system, ''e.g.'', 16 ٮو.
*<sup>{{Color|red|2}}</sup> The vowels are represented by diacritics.
*<ė> does not occur without a consonant, so a diacritic is used, ''e.g.'' صٙ, sė.




==Grammar - Kenom Yimmor==
==Grammar - Kenom Yaxkor کهنۉم ياخکۉر==
===Syllables, Accent and Punctuation===
===Syllables, Accent and Punctuation===
*001. All basic words ([[Wikipedia:Lemma (morphology)|lemmas]]) end in a consonant with the exception of the prepositions (VCV, CV or VV), the articles (CV), ''and'' ('''he'''), and ''or'' ('''u''').
*001. All basic words ([[Wikipedia:Lemma (morphology)|lemmas]]) end in a consonant with the exception of the prepositions (VCV, CV or VV), the articles (CV), ''and'' ('''he'''), and ''or'' ('''u''').
*002. The accent of disyllabic words falls on the [[Wikipedia:Ultima (linguistics)|ultimate]] syllable.
*002. The accent of disyllabic words falls on the [[Wikipedia:Ultima (linguistics)|ultimate]] syllable.
*003. The accent remains on this ultima when prefixes or suffixes are added.
*003. The accent remains on this ultima when prefixes or suffixes are added.
*004. There are no diphthongs.


===Word Order - '''Likad Nigup'''===
===Word Order - Likad Nigup لىکاظ نىݢۆٮ===
*005. Liwadi word order is SOV, subject-object-verb.
*004. Liwadi word order is SOV, subject-object-verb.
*006. The indirect object precedes the direct object:
*005. The indirect object precedes the direct object:
:::'''Em ae su in sa ruzad-na meńama.'''
::I gave the egg to the man.
:::I gave the egg to the man.
::'''Em kėsu in sa ruzad-na meŋŋama.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Em||ae||su||in||sa||ruzad-na||meńam-a
!Em||k'||su||in||sa||ruzad-na||meŋam-a
|-
|-
|I||to||the||man||the||egg-OBJ||give\PST\IND-3p
|I||to||the||man||the||egg-OBJ||give\PST\IND-3p
|}
|}
*007. The genitive noun follows the head noun:
*006. The genitive noun follows the head noun:
:::'''Sa bapom ne tu in yasaru.'''
::The man's throat hurts.
:::The man's throat hurts.
::'''Sa bapom ne su in yasaru.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Sa||bapom||ne||tu||in||yasar-u
!Sa||bapom||ne||su||in||yasar-u
|-
|-
|the||throat||of||the||man||hurt\NPST\IND-3p
|the||throat||of||the||man||hurt\NPST\IND-3p
|}
|}
*008. Adjectives and determiners precede the nouns they qualify.
*007. Adjectives and determiners precede the nouns they qualify.
*009. The adjective follows the standard of comparison.
*008. The adjective follows the standard of comparison.
*010. The adjective precedes the dependent verb.
*009. The adjective precedes the dependent verb.
*011. Adverbs follow the verbs they modify.
*010. Adverbs follow the verbs they modify.
*012. Adverbials of time precede those of space.
*011. Adverbials of time precede those of space.


===Verbs - '''Yipod Liḳdar'''===
===Verbs - '''Yipod Liḳdar''' يىٮۉظ  لىٯظلر===
*013. [[Wikipedia:Verb|Verbs]] are a class of words that convey an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
*012. [[Wikipedia:Verb|Verbs]] are a class of words that convey an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
*014. Most Liwadi verbs consist of what is called a triliteral stem, three consonants, CVCVC. Prefixes, suffixes and [[Wikipedia:Infix|infixes]] specify the meaning of the verb. A few verbs have the form VCVC.
*013. Most Liwadi verbs consist of what is called a triliteral stem, three consonants, CVCVC. Prefixes, suffixes and [[Wikipedia:Infix|infixes]] specify the meaning of the verb. A few verbs have the form VCVC.
*015. [[Wikipedia:Grammatical tense|Tense]] is a grammatical category which expresses the time at which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs. There are two tenses in Liwadi, non-past (NPST) and past (PST).
*014. [[Wikipedia:Grammatical tense|Tense]] is a grammatical category which expresses the time at which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs. There are three tenses in Liwadi, present (PRS), past (PST) and future (FUT).
*016. The non-past tense is indicated by '''a''' in the first vowel position: '''maʻak''', fall. This form is the [[Wikipedia:Lemma (morphology)|lemma]].
*015. The present tense is indicated by '''a''' in the first vowel position: '''maʻak''', fall. This form is the [[Wikipedia:Lemma (morphology)|lemma]].
*017. The past tense is indicated be '''e''' in the first vowel position: '''meʻak''', fell.
*016. The past tense is indicated be '''e''' in the first vowel position: '''meʻak''', fell.
*018. [[Wikipedia:Grammatical mood|Mood]] is a grammatical category by which the speaker expresses his attitude toward what he is saying.
*017. The future tense is indicated be '''u''' in the first vowel position: '''muʻak''', fell.
*019. The vowel in the second vowel position indicates the mood.
*017. [[Wikipedia:Grammatical mood|Mood]] is a grammatical category by which the speaker expresses his attitude toward what he is saying.
*020. The indicative mood (IND) is indicated by '''a''' in the second vowel position: '''maʻak''', fall.
*018. The vowel in the second vowel position indicates the mood.
*021. The subjunctive mood (SBJ) is indicated by '''e''' in the second vowel position: '''maʻek''', may fall.
*019. The indicative mood (IND) is indicated by '''a''' in the second vowel position: '''maʻak''', fall.
*022. The imperative mood (IMP) is indicated by '''i''' in the second vowel position: '''maʻik''', fall!
*020. The subjunctive mood (SBJ) is indicated by '''e''' in the second vowel position: '''maʻek''', may fall.
*023. This same form is used for the [[Wikipedia:Hortative#cohortative|cohortative]] (COH) and [[Wikipedia:Jussive mood|jussive]] (JUS) moods  with the appropriate pronoun following in the objective form:
*021. The imperative mood (IMP) is indicated by '''i''' in the second vowel position: '''maʻik''', fall!
:::'''anip es-na''', Let him sing.
*022. This same form is used for the [[Wikipedia:Hortative#cohortative|cohortative]] (HORT) and [[Wikipedia:Jussive mood|jussive]] (JUS) moods  with the appropriate pronoun following in the objective form:
:::'''anip emer-na''', Let's sing.
::'''anip es-na''', Let him sing.
*024. The Liwadi verb is marked for person, but not for number. The accent remains on the second syllable, the penultimate: '''nadada''', I/we swim; '''nadadi''', you (sg./pl) swim; '''nadadu''', he/they swim.
::'''anip emer-na''', Let's sing.
*025. The passive (PAS) form of the verb is formed by prefixing the verb with '''gė-''' and adding the object suffix to the subject:
*023. The Liwadi verb is marked for person, but not for number. The accent remains on the second syllable, the penultimate: '''nadada''', I/we swim; '''nadadi''', you (sg./pl) swim; '''nadadu''', he/they swim.
:::'''Sa gab-na gėrenaku.'''
*024. The passive (PAS) form of the verb is formed by prefixing the verb with '''gė-''' and adding the object suffix to the subject:
:::The fish was cooked.
::The fish was cooked.
::::{|
::'''Sa gab-na gėrenaku.'''
::{|
!sa||gab-na||gė-renak-u
!sa||gab-na||gė-renak-u
|-
|-
|the||fish-OBJ||PAS-cook\PST\IND-3
|the||fish-OBJ||PAS-cook\PST\IND-3
|}
|}
:::'''Sa ikam-na gėnapaʻu.'''
::The tree is burned.
:::The tree is burned.
::'''Sa ikam-na gėnapaʻu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Sa||ikam-na||gė-napaʻ-u
!Sa||ikam-na||gė-napaʻ-u
|-
|-
|the||tree-OBJ||PAS-burn\NPST\IND-3
|the||tree-OBJ||PAS-burn\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
::If there is no initial consonant, then only '''g''' is prefixed:
:*If there is no initial consonant, then only '''g''' is prefixed:
:::'''Su am-na gadaru.'''
::The mother is loved.
:::The mother is loved.
::'''Su am-na gadaru.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Su||am-na||g-adar-u
!Su||am-na||g-adar-u
|-
|-
|the||mother-OBJ||PAS-love\NPST\IND-3
|the||mother-OBJ||PAS-love\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*026. The non-past infinitive is formed by prefixing '''mė-''' to the non-past indicative form: '''mėpasad''', to see; '''mėyaʻaʻ''', to bend.
*025. The non-past infinitive is formed by prefixing '''mė-''' to the non-past indicative form: '''mėpasad''', to see; '''mėyaʻaʻ''', to bend.
::The past infinitive is formed by prefixing '''mė''' to the past indicative form:
::The past infinitive is formed by prefixing '''mė''' to the past indicative form: '''mėpesad''', to have seen; '''mėyeʻaʻ''', to have bent.
:::'''mėpesad''', to have seen; '''mėyeʻaʻ''', to have bent.
::The passive infinitive is formed by prefixing both '''mė-''' and '''gė-''': '''mėgėpesad''', to have been seen; '''mėgėyeʻaʻ''', to have been bent.
::The passive infinitive is formed by prefixing both '''mė-''' and '''gė-'''.
*026. A verbal noun, or gerund (GER), is indicated by '''o''' in the second vowel position: '''pazad''', want; '''pazod''', wanting.
:::'''mėgėpesad''', to have been seen; '''mėgėyeʻaʻ''', to have been bent.
::Swimming strengthens my limbs.
*027. A verbal noun, or gerund (GER), is indicated by '''o''' in the second vowel position: '''pazad''', want; '''pazod''', wanting.
::'''Ya nadod ya em ŋeṗʻor-na yawayu.'''
:::'''Ya nadod ya em ńeṗʻor-na yawayu.'''
::{|
:::Swimming strengthens my limbs.
!Ya||nadod||ya||em||ŋeṗʻor-na||yaway-u
::::{|
!Ya||nadod||ya||em||ńeṗʻor-na||yaway-u
|-
|-
|INDEF||swim\GER||INDEF||my||limb-OBJ||strengthen\NPST\IND-3
|INDEF||swim\GER||INDEF||my||limb-OBJ||strengthen\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*028. Sentence negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the word '''wa''':
*027. Sentence negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the word '''ki''':
:::'''Em adara wa''', I do not love.
::'''Em adara ki''', I do not love.
*029. A question (Q) is indicated by the use of the final particle '''ha''':
*028. A question (Q) is indicated by the use of the final particle '''ha''':
:::'''Em eń-na adara''', I love you.
::'''Em eŋ-na adara''', I love you.
:::'''Em eń-na adara ha?''', Do I love you?
::'''Em eŋ-na adara ha?''', Do I love you?
::If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made followed by the phrase '''mubam''' ha, true?
:*If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made followed by the phrase '''mubam ha''', true?
:::'''Su nulen wapayu, mubam ha?'''
::'''Su nulun wapayu, mubam ha?'''
:::The sun is shining, isn't it?
::The sun is shining, isn't it?
:::'''Su nulen wepayu, mubam ha?'''
::'''Su nulun wepayu, mubam ha?'''
:::The sun was shining, wasn't it?  
::The sun was shining, wasn't it?  
::If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made followed by the phrase '''mubam ha''', true?
:*If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made followed by the phrase '''mubam ha''', true?
:::'''Su nulen wapadu wa, mubam ha?'''
::'''Su nulen wapadu wa, mubam ha?'''
:::The sun isn't shining, is it?
::The sun isn't shining, is it?
:::'''Su nulen wepadu wa, mubam ha?'''
::'''Su nulen wepadu wa, mubam ha?'''
:::The sun wasn't shining, was it?
::The sun wasn't shining, was it?
*030. Dependent verbs, such as infinitives and gerunds, precede the verb or adjective upon which they are dependent:
*029. Dependent verbs, such as infinitives and gerunds, precede the verb or adjective upon which they are dependent:
:::'''Em ya yuʻag-na mėmabas ʻedaga.'''
::I was afraid to touch a toad.
:::I was afraid to touch a toad.
::'''Em ya yuʻag-na mėmabas ʻedaga.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Em||ya||yuʻag-na||mė-mabas||ʻedag-a
!Em||ya||yuʻag-na||mė-mabas||ʻedag-a
|-
|-
|I||INDEF||toad-OBJ||INF-touch||fear\PST\IND-3
|I||INDEF||toad-OBJ||INF-touch||fear\PST\IND-3
|}
|}
:::'''Es mėmanas pazadu.'''
::He wants to go.
:::He wants to go.
::'''Es mėmanas pazadu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Es||mė-manas||pazad-u
!Es||mė-manas||pazad-u
|-
|-
|he||INF-go||want\NPST\IND-3
|he||INF-go||want\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
::A direct object is placed before the infinitive:
:*A direct object is placed before the infinitive:
:::'''Em es-na mėmanas pezadu.'''
::I wanted him to go.
:::I wanted him to go.
::'''Em es-na mėmanas pezadu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Em||es-na||mė-manas||pezad-u
!Em||es-na||mė-manas||pezad-u
|-
|-
|I||he-OBJ||INF-god||want\PST\IND-3
|I||he-OBJ||INF-go||want\PST\IND-3
|}
|}
*031. Verbs may be formed from perceptible nouns and from adjectives by using them as verbs: ʻipay, flower:
*030. Verbs may be formed from perceptible nouns and from adjectives by using them as verbs: '''ʻipay''', flower:
:::'''Su riṗgir aranulen ʻepayu.'''
::The roses bloomed yesterday.
:::The roses bloomed yesterday.
::'''Su riṗgir aranulun ʻepayu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Su||riṗg-ir||aranulen||ʻepay-u
!Su||riṗg-ir||aranulun||ʻepay-u
|-
|-
|the||rose-PL||yesterday||bloom\PST\IND-3
|the||rose-PL||yesterday||bloom\PST\IND-3
|}
|}
::If the adjective is of the form CVC, then the verb takes the form VCVC: pas, bad; apas, be bad.
:*If the adjective is of the form CVC, then the verb takes the form VCVC: '''pas''', bad; '''apas''', be bad.
*032. Transitive verbs may be formed from adjectives by treating them as verbs: puyar, wide:
*031. Transitive verbs may be formed from adjectives by treating them as verbs: '''puyar''', wide:
:::'''Eser sa yurin-na payaru.'''
::They are widening the road.
:::They are widening the road.
::'''Eser sa yurin-na payaru.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Eser||sa||yurin-na||payar-u
!Eser||sa||yurin-na||payar-u
|-
|-
Line 226: Line 284:
|}
|}


===Nouns - '''Nanal Liḳdar'''===
===Nouns - '''Nanal Liḳdar''' نانال لىݢظلر===
*033. [[Wikipedia:Noun|Nouns]] are a class of words that function as the names of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.
*032. [[Wikipedia:Noun|Nouns]] are a class of words that function as the names of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.
*034. There are no noun classes in Liwadi.
*033. There are no noun classes in Liwadi.
*035. A noun must be preceded by a determiner or an adjective:
*034. A noun must be preceded by a determiner or an adjective:
:::'''Su in yem ayadu.'''
::The man is here.
:::The man is here.
::'''Su in yam atadu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Su||in||yem||ayad-u
!Su||in||yam||atad-u
|-
|-
|the||man||here||be\NPST\IND-3
|the||man||here||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
:::'''Yu inir yem ayadu.'''
::Men are here.
:::Men are here.
::'''Yu inir yam atadu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Yu||in-ir||yem||ayad-u
!Yu||in-ir||yam||atad-u
|-
|-
|INDEF||man-PL||here||be\NPST\IND-3
|INDEF||man-PL||here||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*036. Plurality (PL) is indicated by deleting the second vowel and placing it after the word with the suffix '''-r'''; the plural suffix bears the accent: '''sa erim''', stone; '''sa ermir''', the stones.
*035. Plurality (PL) is indicated by deleting the second vowel and placing it after the word with the suffix '''-r'''; the plural suffix bears the accent: '''sa erim''', stone; '''sa ermir''', the stones.
::If the middle consonant is a stop, it is [[Wikipedia:Lenition|lenited]]. This is indicated orthographically with a dot under the consonant: '''sa medop''', the river; '''sa meḍpor''', the rivers; '''ya medop''', a river; '''ya meḍpor''', rivers.
:*If the middle consonant is a stop, it is [[Wikipedia:Lenition|lenited]]. This is indicated orthographically with a dot under the consonant: '''sa medop''', the river; '''sa meḍpor''', the rivers; '''ya medop''', a river; '''ya meḍpor''', rivers.
:::'''Sa ermir bigak ayadu.'''
::The stones are large.
:::The stones are large.
::'''Sa ermir bigak atadu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Sa||erm-ir||bigak||ayad-u
!Sa||erm-ir||bigak||atad-u
|-
|-
|the||stone-PL||large||be\NPST\IND-3
|the||stone-PL||large||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
:::'''Em sa ermir-na pasada.'''
::I see the stones.
:::I see the stones.
::'''Em sa ermir-na pasada.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Em||sa||erm-ir-na||pasad-a
!Em||sa||erm-ir-na||pasad-a
|-
|-
|I||the||stone-PL-OBJ||see\NPST\IND-3
|I||the||stone-PL-OBJ||see\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
::If the noun is monosyllabic, '''-Vr''' is added: '''gab''', fish; '''gabar''', fishes.
:*If the noun is monosyllabic, '''-Vr''' is added: '''gub''', fish; '''gubur''', fishes.
::If the noun is CVCV, '''-r''' is added: '''yońa''', shoulder; '''yońar''', shoulders.
:*If the noun is CVCV, '''-r''' is added: '''yoŋa''', shoulder; '''yoŋar''', shoulders.
*037. Possession is indicated by the preposition '''ne''', of:
*036. Possession is indicated by the preposition '''ne''', of:
:::'''sa yitoy ne su tikag'''; the child's smile.
::'''sa yitoy ne su takag'''; the child's smile.
*038. The particle '''-na''' marks the direct object (OBJ) of the verb:
*037. The particle '''-na''' marks the direct object (OBJ) of the verb:
:::'''Em su ziʻop-na pasada.'''
::I see the bird.
:::I see the bird.
::'''Em su siʻ-na pasada.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Em||su||ziʻop-na||pasad-a
!Em||su||siʻ-na||pasad-a
|-
|-
|I||the||bird-OBJ||see\NPST\IND-3
|I||the||bird-OBJ||see\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*039. Nouns naming a person characterized by an adjective are formed by using the animate definite article: zuʻip, young; su zuʻip, youth; tinam, old; su tinam, elder.
*038. The prefix '''kė-''' is affixed to the determiner to indicate the indirect object:  '''kėsu takag''', to the child.
*040. Abstract nouns (-ty, -ness, -tion, ''etc.'') are derived from adjectives by using the inanimate definite article: '''yizup''', short; '''sa yizup''', shortness.
*039. Nouns naming a person characterized by an adjective are formed by using the animate definite article: '''zusep''', young; '''su zusep''', youth; '''tanam''', old; '''su tanam''', elder.
*041. Nouns denoting perceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCoC: '''pataz''', bathe; '''ya pitoz''', bath.
*040. Abstract nouns (-ty, -ness, -tion, ''etc.'') are derived from adjectives by using the inanimate definite article: '''yuzup''', short; '''sa yuzup''', shortness.
*042. Nouns denoting imperceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCuC: '''nagap''', order; '''nigup''', order.
*041. Nouns denoting perceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCoC: '''padaz''', bathe; '''ya pidoz''', bath.
*043. A noun may be specified as masculine or feminine by using the words '''in''' and '''min''', respectively: '''ziʻop''', bird; '''minziʻop''', hen; '''inziʻop''', cock.
*042. Nouns denoting impercptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCuC: '''nagap''', order; '''nigup''', order.
*044. Nouns may be used to modify other nouns: '''sa dap turak''', the mountain stream.
*043. A noun may be specified as masculine or feminine by using the words '''in''' and '''min''', respectively: '''siʻ''', bird; '''minsiʻ''', hen; '''insiʻ''', cock.
*045. Collective nouns are formed from nouns or adjectives by using the word '''yuraz''', group: '''sa ziʻpor yuraz''', the flock of birds; '''sa gabar yuraz''', the school of fish; '''sa ginńer yuraz''', archipelago.
*044. Nouns may be used to modify other nouns: '''sa dap muduk''', the mountain stream.
*045. Collective nouns are formed from nouns or adjectives by using the word '''rozud''', group: '''sa siʻir rozud''', the flock of birds; '''sa gubur rozud''', the school of fish; '''sa buwper rozud''', archipelago.
*046. The diminutive of nouns is formed with the prefix '''t(ė)''': '''in''', man; '''tin''', boy; '''min''', woman; '''tėmin''', girl.
*046. The diminutive of nouns is formed with the prefix '''t(ė)''': '''in''', man; '''tin''', boy; '''min''', woman; '''tėmin''', girl.
*047. The agent of a verb is formed with the word '''nuhon''', person: '''bamat''', sing; '''bamat nuhon''', singer.
*047. The agent of a verb is formed with the word '''sugul''', person: '''nap''', sing; '''nap sugul''', singer.


===Modifiers - '''Namod Liḳdar'''===
===Modifiers - '''Namod Liḳdar''' نامۉظ لىݢظلر===
*048. In Liwadi grammar adjectives, adverbs and determiners are classed together as modifiers.
*048. In Liwadi grammar adjectives, adverbs and determiners are classed together as modifiers.


====Adjectives - '''Kańop Liḳdar'''====
====Adjectives - '''Kaŋop Liḳdar''' کاگۉٮ لىݢظلر====
*049. [[Wikipedia:Adjective|Adjectives]] are a class of words which qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.  
*049. [[Wikipedia:Adjective|Adjectives]] are a class of words which qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.  
*050. Adjectives are placed before the noun: '''su ńor tin''', the good boy.
*050. Adjectives are placed before the noun: '''su ŋor tin''', the good boy.
*051. The one degree of comparison, known as the [[Wikipedia:Comparative|comparative]] (COMP), is formed by reduplication:
*051. The one degree of comparison, known as the [[Wikipedia:Comparative|comparative]] (COMP), is formed by reduplication:
::'''idol''', red; '''idolidol''', redder, reddest.
::'''dolup''', red; '''dolupdolup''', redder, reddest.
::'''putoy''', far; '''putoyputoy''', farther, farthest.
::'''putoy''', far; '''putoyputoy''', farther, farthest.
*052. In comparisons ''than'' is translated by '''ini''':
*052. In comparisons ''than'' is translated by '''le''':
:::'''Wed ʻipay yidakyidak ini dad ʻipay adaya.'''
::This flower is bluer than that flower
:::This flower is bluer than that flower
::'''Wed ʻapud yidakyidak le dad ʻapud adayu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Wed||ʻipay||yidak~yidak||ini||dad||ʻipay||adaya
!Wed||ʻapud||yidak~yidak||le||dad||ʻapud||aday-u
|-
|-
|this||flower||COMP~blue||than||that||FLOWER||be\NPST\IND-3
|this||flower||COMP~blue||than||that||FLOWER||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*053. Negative comparison is formed with the word '''ʻeyoń'', less: '''putoy''', distant; '''ʻeyoń putoy''', less/least distant.
*053. The absolute superlative is formed be reduplicating the first syllable (CV), '''puputoy''', very far, or (VC) '''yiyidak''', very red.
*054. The comparison of equality is formed with the conjunction '''yol''', as: '''idol''', red; '''yol idol''', as red:
*054. Negative comparison is formed with the word '''suyuk''', less: '''putoy''', distant; '''suyuk putoy''', less/least distant.
:::'''Wed ʻipay yol idol yol gal ayadu.'''
*055. The comparison of equality is formed with the conjunction '''yė''', as: '''yidak''', red; '''yidol''', as red:
:::This flower is as red as blood.
::This flower is as red as blood.
::::{|
::'''Wed ʻapud yėdolup yėgal atadu.'''
!Wed||ʻipay||yol||idol||yol||gal||ayad-u
::{|
!Wed||ʻipay||yol||idol||yol||gal||atad-u
|-
|-
|this||flower||as||red||as||blood||be-NPST\IND-3
|this||flower||as||red||as||blood||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*055. [[Wikipedia:Participle|Participles]] are a form of a verb that is used to modify a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase, playing a role similar to an adjective or adverb.
*056. [[Wikipedia:Participle|Participles]] are a form of a verb that is used to modify a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase, playing a role similar to an adjective or adverb.
*056. There are two participles in Liwadi.
*057. There are two participles in Liwadi.
**a. The non-past participle has the form CaCuC: '''su nadud gab''', the swimming fish.
:*a. The non-past participle has the form CaCuC: '''su baŋun nepud''', the sinking boat.
**b. The past participle has the form CeCuC: '''sa beńun nipad''', the sunken boat.
:*b. The past participle has the form CeCuC: '''sa beŋun nepud''', the sunken boat.
*057. Nouns of material may be used like adjectives: '''sa erim rutiń''', the stone house.
*058. Nouns of material may be used like adjectives: '''sa erim ruteŋ''', the stone house.
*058. Word negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the prefix '''o-''': '''lunań''', even; '''o-lunań''', uneven.
*059. Word negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the prefix '''o-''': '''lunaŋ''', even; '''o-lunaŋ''', uneven.
*059. Adjectives with the meaning ''without'' are expressed with the preposition '''isi''', without: '''tidor''', hope; '''isi ya tidor''', hopeless.
*060. Adjectives with the meaning ''without'' are expressed with the preposition '''ruk''', without: '''yihud''', hope; '''ruk yihud''', hopeless. With this use of '''ruk''', a determiner is not used.
*060. Descriptive adjectives are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to '''o''': '''yisun''', anger; '''yoson''', angry.
*061. Adjectives denoting the possession of that which is named in the noun root is formed by changing the vowels to '''o''': '''yisun''', anger; '''yoson''', angry.
*061. Adjectives denoting pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun or verb root are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to '''i''': '''soʻek''', fog; '''siʻik''', foggy; '''sataʻ''', tire; '''sitiʻ''', tired.
*062. Adjectives denoting pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun or verb root are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to '''i''': '''supuʻ''', fog; '''sipiʻ''', foggy; '''ʻayap''', tire; '''ʻiyip''', tired.


====Determiners - '''Yaros Liḳdar'''====
====Determiners - '''Yaros Liḳdar''' يارۉص  لىݢظلر====
*062. Determiners are a class of words that serve to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, ''etc''.
*063. Determiners are a class of words that serve to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, ''etc''.
*063. There are three definite articles, the animate '''su''', the inanimate '''sa''', and the proper '''se''': '''in''', man; '''su in''', the man; '''erem''', rock; '''sa erem''', the rock; '''se Yugun''', God.
*064. There are three definite articles, the animate '''su''', the inanimate '''sa''', and the proper '''se''': '''in''', man; '''su in''', the man; '''erim''', rock; '''sa erim''', the rock; '''se Kuhud''', God.
*064. There are two indefinite articles, the animate '''yu''' and the inanimate '''ya''': '''min''', woman; '''yu min''', a woman; '''litad''', bed; '''ya litad''', a bed.
*065. There are two indefinite articles, the animate '''yu''' and the inanimate '''ya''': '''min''', woman; '''yu min''', a woman; '''leŋud''', bed; '''ya leŋud''', a bed.
::The indefinite article is also used when no other modifier is present:
:*The indefinite article is used when no other modifier is present:
:::'''yu ʻiṗyar zu sa binel wilam ʻapayu.'''
::Flowers bloom in the rainy season.
:::Flowers bloom in the rainy season.
::'''yu ʻaṗdur zu sa binol simud ʻapadu.'''
::::{|
::{|
!yu||ʻiṗy-ar||zu||sa||binel||wilam||ʻapay-u
!yu||ʻiṗy-ar||zu||sa||binel||wilam||ʻapay-u
|-
|-
|INDEF||flower-PL||in||the||rain||season||bloom-NPST\IND-3
|INDEF||flower-PL||in||the||rain||season||bloom-NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*065. Numerals precede the noun in the absence of a determiner:
*066. Numerals precede the noun in the absence of a determiner:
:::'''Tid minir ranaku.'''
::Three women are cooking.
:::Three women are cooking.
::'''Kub minir ranaku.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Tid||min-ir||ranak-u
!kub||min-ir||ranak-u
|-
|-
|three||woman-PL||cook\NPST\IND-3
|three||woman-PL||cook\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
::They follow the noun if the noun is preceded by a determiner:
:*They follow the noun if the noun is preceded by a determiner:
:::'''Wed minir tid ranaku.'''
::These three women are cooking.
:::These three women are cooking.
::'''Wed minir kub ranaku.'''
::::{|
::{|
!Wed||min-ir||tid||ranak-u
!Wed||min-ir||tkub||ranak-u
|-
|-
|these||woman-PL||three||cook\NPST\IND-3
|these||woman-PL||three||cook\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*066. The demonstrative determiners are '''wed''', this/these; and '''dad''', that/those, ''e.g.'' '''dad ziʻop''', that bird; '''wed ʻiṗyar''', these flowers.
*067. The demonstrative determiners are '''wed''', this/these; and '''dad''', that/those, ''e.g.'', '''dad siʻ''', that bird; '''wed ʻaṗdur''', these flowers.
*067. The possessive determiners are formed by inserting the personal pronoun between the definite article and that which is possessed; the vowel of the pronoun is then [[Wikipedia:Elision|elided]]:
*068. The possessive determiners are formed by inserting the personal pronoun between the definite article and that which is possessed; the vowel of the pronoun is then [[Wikipedia:Elision|elided]]:
::'''sa 'm tag''', my hand; '''su 'ń bab''', your father.
::'''sa 'm tug''', my hand; '''su 'ŋ uruʻ''', your father.
*068. The elective indefinite determiner is '''nul''', any.
*069. The elective indefinite determiner is '''nol''', any.
*069. The assertive indefinite determiner is '''rag''', some.
*070. The assertive indefinite determiner is '''yazuŋ''', some.


====Numerals - '''Limor'''====
====Numerals - '''Limor''' لىمۉر====
*070. Liwadi has an octal numeral system.
*071. Liwadi has an octal numeral system.


{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
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Line 365: Line 425:
! 8
! 8
|-
|-
| '''pab'''
| '''hed'''<br>حهظ
| '''keg'''
| '''wan'''<br>وان
| '''tid'''
| '''kub'''<br>کۆب
| '''soz'''
| '''toŋ'''<br>طۉگ
| '''lum'''
| '''pem'''<br>ٮهم
| '''niń'''
| '''ser'''<br>صهر
| '''har'''
| '''yim'''<br>يىم
| '''yeʻ'''
| '''nam'''<br>نام
|}
|}
*071. The numerals 9-15 are formed by suffixing the proper cardirnal to '''yeʻ''', eight.
*072. The numerals 9-15 are formed by suffixing the proper cardirnal to '''nam''', eight.


{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
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Line 385: Line 445:
! 15
! 15
|-
|-
| '''yeʻpab
| '''namhed
| '''yeʻkeg
| '''namwan
| '''yeʻtid
| '''namkub
| '''yeʻsoz
| '''namtoŋ
| '''yeʻlum
| '''nampem
| '''yeʻniń
| '''namser
| '''yeʻhar
| '''namyim
|}  
|}  


*072. The numerals 16-64 are formed by prefixing the proper cardirnal to '''miz''', eight.
*073. The numerals 16-64 are formed by prefixing the proper cardirnal to '''nam''', eight.


{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
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Line 406: Line 466:
! 64
! 64
|-
|-
| '''keġyeʻ'''
| '''wannam'''
| '''tiḍyeʻ'''
| '''kubnam'''
| '''sozyeʻ'''
| '''toŋnam'''
| '''lumyeʻ'''
| '''pemnam'''
| '''nińyeʻ'''
| '''sernam'''
| '''haryeʻ'''
| '''yimnam'''
| '''yeʻyeʻ'''
| '''namnam'''
|}
|}


*073. Compounds of 64 can be made by prefixing the proper ordinal to '''yeʻyeʻ''': '''kegyeʻyeʻ''', 128, but the Liwadis seldom need to count that high.
*074. Compounds of 64 can be made by prefixing the proper ordinal to '''namnam''': '''wannamnam''', 128, but the Liwadis seldom need to count that high.
*074. The ordinals are made by adding the suffix '''-it''' to the cardinal number: '''pabit''', first.
*075. The ordinals are made by adding the suffix '''-it''' to the cardinal number: '''hedit''', first.
*075. The adverbial numbers expressing ''how many times'' are made by adding the suffix '''-us''' to the ordinal number: '''pabus''', twice; '''mizus''', eight times.
*076. The adverbial numbers expressing ''how many times'' are made by adding the suffix '''-us''' to the ordinal number: '''wanus''', twice; '''minamus''', eight times.
*076. Multiplicative numbers expressing ''how many times as many'' are formed by adding '''-ar''' to the cardinal number: '''yeʻar''', eight times as many.
*077. Multiplicative numbers expressing ''how many times as many'' are formed by adding '''-ar''' to the cardinal number: '''namar''', eight times as many.
:::'''Em tidar lomder-na dawańa yol es dawańu.'''
::'''Em kubar lomder-na dawaŋa yol es dawaŋu.'''
:::I have three times as many bananas as he has.
::I have three times as many bananas as he has.
::::{|
::{|
!Em||tid-ar||lomder-na||dawań-a||yol||es||dawań-u
!Em||kub-ar||lomder-na||dawaŋ-a||yol||es||dawaŋ-u
|-
|-
|I||three-MULT||banana\PL-OBJ||have\NPST\IND-1||as||he||have\NPST\IND-3
|I||three-MULT||banana\PL-OBJ||have\NPST\IND-1||as||he||have\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*077. Distributive numbers (DSTR) expressing ''at a time'' are formed by duplicating the first syllable of the required number.
*078. Distributive numbers (DSTR) expressing ''at a time'' are formed by duplicating the first syllable of the required number.
:::'''Su inir kekeg sa benep-na serapu.'''
::'''Su inir wawan sa benep-na serapu.'''
:::The men crossed the bridge two at a time.
::The men crossed the bridge two at a time.
::::{|
::{|
!Su||in-ir||ke~keg||sa||benep-na||serap-u
!Su||in-ir||ke~keg||sa||benep-na||serap-u
|-
|-
|the||man-PL||DSTR~two||the||bridge-OBJ||cross-PST\IND-3
|the||man-PL||DSTR~two||the||bridge-OBJ||cross-PST\IND-3
|}
|}
*078. Distributive numbers expressing ''each'' are formed by adding the determiner '''yok''', each, to the cardinal number.
*079. Distributive numbers expressing ''each'' are formed by adding the determiner '''yok''', each, to the cardinal number.
:::'''Emer ige tiḍyok ruzlar-na dekaka.'''
::'''Emer ige kuḃyok ruzlar-na dekaka.'''
:::We split into groups of three each.
::We split into groups of three each.
::::{|
::{|
!Emer||ige||tiḍ.yok||ruzl-ar-na||dekak-a
!Emer||ige||kuḃ.yok||ruzl-ar-na||dekak-a
|-
|-
|we||into||three.each||group-PL-OBJ||split\PST\IND-3
|we||into||three.each||group-PL-OBJ||split\PST\IND-3
|}
|}


====Adverbs - '''Nuker Liḳdar'''====
====Adverbs - '''Nuker Liḳdar''' نۆکهر ليخظار====
*079. [[Wikipedia:Adverb|Adverbs]] are a class of words that modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a determiner, a noun phrase, a clause, or a sentence. They typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, ''etc.''
*080. [[Wikipedia:Adverb|Adverbs]] are a class of words that modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a determiner, a noun phrase, a clause, or a sentence. They typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, ''etc.''
*080. They have the same form as the adjective, but follow the verb they modify:
*081. They have the same form as the adjective, but follow the verb they modify:
:::'''su iliz in''', the brave man.
::'''su iliz in''', the brave man.
:::Es medab iliz, He acted bravely.
::'''Es medab iliz''', He acted bravely.
*081. The comparative of these adverbs is formed in the same way as are adjectives; '''iliz''', bravely; '''iliziliz''', more/most bravely.
*082. The comparative of these adverbs is formed in the same way as are adjectives; '''iliz''', bravely; '''iliziliz''', more/most bravely.


===Pronouns - '''Nuhon Liḳdar'''===
===Pronouns - '''Nuhon Liḳdar''' نۆحۉن لىݢظلر===
*082. [[Wikipedia:Pronoun|Pronouns]] are a class of words that substitute for a noun or noun phrase. There are seven types of pronouns in Liwadi.
*083. [[Wikipedia:Pronoun|Pronouns]] are a class of words that substitute for a noun or noun phrase. There are seven types of pronouns in Liwadi.
*083. The personal pronouns are '''em''', I; '''emer''', we; '''eń''', you (''sg.''); '''eńer''', you (''pl.''); '''(in)es''', he; '''(min)es''', she; '''et''', it; '''eser/eter''', they.
*084. The personal pronouns are '''em''', I; '''emer''', we; '''eŋ''', you (''sg.''); '''eŋer''', you (''pl.''); '''(in)es''', he; '''(min)es''', she; '''et''', it; '''eser/eter''', they.
*084. The interrogative pronoun is '''la''' which stands for the interrogative pronouns ''who'', ''what'' and the interrogative adjective ''which''.
*085. The interrogative pronoun is '''la''' which stands for the interrogative pronouns ''who'', ''what'' and the interrogative adjective ''which''.
*085. The reflexive pronouns are translated by using the personal pronoun as both subject and object:
*086. The reflexive pronouns are translated by using the personal pronoun as both subject and object:
:::'''Em em-na yesara.'''
::'''Em em-na yesara.'''
:::I hurt myself.
::I hurt myself.
::::{|
::{|
!Em||em-na||yesar-a
!Em||em-na||yesar-a
|-
|-
|I||I-OBJ||hurt\PST\IND-1
|I||I-OBJ||hurt\PST\IND-1
|}
|}
*086. The intensive pronouns are formed with the noun '''sizul''', self:
*087. The intensive pronouns are formed with the noun '''sazal''', self:
:::'''Emsizul dakaya.'''
::'''Emsazal dakaya.'''
:::I myself will go.
::I myself will go.
::::{|
::{|
!Em.sizul||dakay-a
!Em.sazal||dakay-a
|-
|-
|I.self||go\NPST\IND-1
|I.self||go\NPST\IND-1
|}
|}
:::'''Su minsizul elo sa yamuń dakaya.'''
::'''Su minsazal elo sa yamuŋ dakaya.'''
:::The woman herself will go to the store.
::The woman herself will go to the store.
::::{|
::{|
!Su||min.sizul||elo||sa||yamuń||dakay-a
!Su||min.sizul||elo||sa||yamuŋ||dakay-a
|-
|-
|the||woman.self||to||the||store||go\NPST\IND-3
|the||woman.self||to||the||store||go\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*087. The demonstrative pronouns are the same as the demonstrative determiners, '''wed''', this; '''weder''', these; and '''dad''', that; '''dadar''', those, and may take the direct object particle as needed:
*088. The demonstrative pronouns are the same as the demonstrative determiners, '''wed''', this; '''weder''', these; and '''dad''', that; '''dadar''', those, and may take the direct object particle as needed:
:::'''Em dadar-na pazada.'''
::'''Em dadar-na pazada.'''
:::I want those.
::I want those.
::::{|
::{|
!Em||dad-ar-na||pazad-a
!Em||dad-ar-na||pazad-a
|-
|-
|I||this-PL-OBJ||want\NPST\IND-1
|I||this-PL-OBJ||want\NPST\IND-1
|}
|}
*088. The indefinite pronouns are made from the indefinite determiners: '''nul nuhon''', anyone, anybody, '''nul gurop''', anything; '''rag nuhon''', someone, somebody; '''rag gurop''', something; '''wa nuhon''', no one, nobody; '''wa gurop''', nothing; '''yok nuhon''', everyone, everybody; '''yok gurop''', everything.
*089. The indefinite pronouns are made from the indefinite determiners: '''nul nuhon''', anyone, anybody, '''nul gurop''', anything; '''rag nuhon''', someone, somebody; '''rag gurop''', something; '''wa nuhon''', no one, nobody; '''wa gurop''', nothing; '''yok nuhon''', everyone, everybody; '''yok gurop''', everything.
*089. There are no possessive pronouns. The possessor is expressed with a prepositional phrase using ''ne'', of; the vowel of the pronoun is [[Wikipedia:Elision|elided]]:
*090. There are no possessive pronouns. The possessor is expressed with a prepositional phrase using ''ne'', of; the vowel of the pronoun is [[Wikipedia:Elision|elided]]:
:::'''Wed sa 'ń ʻipay ayadu, dad ne 'm ayadu.'''
::'''Wed sa 'ŋ ʻipay datadu, dad ne 'm datadu.'''
:::This is your flower, that is mine.
::This is your flower, that is mine.
::::{|
::{|
!Wed||sa||'ń||ʻipay||ayad-u||dad||ne||'m||ayad-u
!Wed||sa||'ŋ||ʻipay||datad-u||dad||ne||'m||datad-u
|-
|-
|this||the||you||flower||be\NPST\IND\-3||that||of||I||be\NPST\IND-3
|this||the||you||flower||be\NPST\IND\-3||that||of||I||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*090. There are no relative pronouns. The relative clause is an independent clause that precedes the noun it modifies. Any determiner precedes the relative clause. The relative clause is in italics.
*091. There are no relative pronouns. The relative clause is an independent clause that precedes the noun it modifies. Any determiner precedes the relative clause. The relative clause is in italics.
:::'''Sa ''es ya rinap-na renaku'' ńisil ayadu.'''
::'''Sa ''es ya rinap-na renaku'' ŋisil datadu.'''
:::The meat which she cooked is delicious.
::The meat which she cooked is delicious.
::::{|
::{|
!Sa||es||ya||rinap-na||renak-u||ńisil||ayad-u
!Sa||es||ya||rinap-na||renak-u||ŋisil||datad-u
|-
|-
|the||she||INDEF||meat-OB||PST\cook\IND-3||delicious||be\NPST\IND-3
|the||she||INDEF||meat-OB||PST\cook\IND-3||delicious||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}


:::'''Em su ''es em-na ʻebasu'' in-na dapaga.'''
::'''Em su ''es em-na ʻebasu'' in-na dapaga.'''
:::I will kill the man who wounded me.
::I will kill the man who wounded me.
::::{|
::{|
!em||su||es||em-na||ʻebas-u||in-OBJ||dapag-a
!em||su||es||em-na||ʻebas-u||in-OBJ||dapag-a
|-
|-
Line 511: Line 571:
|}
|}


:::'''Sa ''mines et-na renaku'' enip idol ayadu.'''
::'''Sa ''mines et-na renaku'' enip idol datadu.'''
:::The pot in which she cooked it is red.
::The pot in which she cooked it is red.
::::{|
::{|
!Sa||min-es||et-na||renak-u||enip||idol||ayad-u
!Sa||min-es||et-na||renak-u||enip||idol||datad-u
|-
|-
|the||F-3||3-OBJ||cook\PST\IND-3||pot||red||be\NPST\IND-3
|the||F-3||3-OBJ||cook\PST\IND-3||pot||red||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}


:::'''Em tid ''eter yo sa tal nadayu'' tiḳgar-na asada.'''
::'''Em tid ''eter yo sa tal nadayu'' tiḳgar-na asada.'''
:::I see three children who are playing in the sea.
::I see three children who are playing in the sea.
::::{|
::{|
!Em||tid||et-er||yo||sa||tal||naday-u||tiḳg-ar-na||asad-a
!Em||tid||et-er||yo||sa||tal||naday-u||tiḳg-ar-na||asad-a
|-
|-
Line 527: Line 587:
|}
|}


===Prepositions - '''Tiyon Liḳdar'''===
===Prepositions - '''Tiyon Liḳdar''' طىيۉن  لىݢظلر===
*091. Liwadi uses [[Wikipedia:Preposition and postposition|prepositions]], a class of words that express spatial or temporal relations (in, under, towards, before) or mark various semantic roles (of, for): '''zu sa nipap''', at the beach.
*092. Liwadi uses [[Wikipedia:Preposition and postposition|prepositions]], a class of words that express spatial or temporal relations (in, under, towards, before) or mark various semantic roles (of, for): '''zu sa nipap''', at the beach.
*The prepositions are listed in a separate dictionary where a fuller description of them can be given [Liwadi: List of Prepositions].
::The prepositions are listed in a separate [[Liwadi: List of Prepositions|dictionary]] where a fuller description of them can be given.


===Conjunctions - '''Yirup Liḳdar'''===
===Conjunctions - '''Yirup Liḳdar''' يىرۆٮ لىݢظلر===
*092. A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases or clauses.
*093. A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases or clauses.
*093. In Liwadi there are three types of conjunctions.
*094. In Liwadi there are three types of conjunctions.
*094. A coordinate conjunction joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance:
*095. A coordinate conjunction joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance:
:::'''Su em insad h' em ʻiṗtar-na he tuṗyar-na dararu.'''
::'''Su 'm insad h' em ʻiṗtar-na he tuṗyar-na dararu.'''
:::My brother and I like fruits and vegetables.
::My brother and I like fruits and vegetables.
::::{|
::{|
!su||em||insad||he||em||ʻiṗt-ar-na||he||tuṗy-ar-na||darar-u
!su||em||insad||he||em||ʻiṗt-ar-na||he||tuṗy-ar-na||darar-u
|-
|-
|the||my||brother||and||I||fruit-PL-OBJ||and||vegetable-PL-OBJ||like\NPST\IND-3
|the||my||brother||and||I||fruit-PL-OBJ||and||vegetable-PL-OBJ||like\NPST\IND-3
|}
|}
*095. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join two or more items of equal syntactic importance:
*096. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join two or more items of equal syntactic importance:
:::'''Eń u sepur padadi u eń latadi.'''
::'''Eŋ u sepur padadi u eŋ latadi.'''
:::You will either eat your supper or go to bed.
::You will either eat your supper or go to bed.
::::{|
::{|
!Eń||u||sepur||padad-i||u||eń||latad-i
!Eŋ||u||sepur||padad-i||u||eŋ||latad-i
|-
|-
|you||or||supper||eat\NPST\IND-2||or||you||go.to.bed\NPST\IND-2
|you||or||supper||eat\NPST\IND-2||or||you||go.to.bed\NPST\IND-2
|}
|}
*096. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause and a dependent clause:
*097. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause and a dependent clause. The dependent clause may be placed either before or after the main clause.
:::'''Apoń es doked ayadu, es rotep pedadu.'''
::'''Apoŋ es doked datadu, es rotep pedadu.'''
:::Although she is sick, she ate her breakfast.
::Although she is sick, she ate her breakfast.
::::{|
::{|
!Apoń||es||doked||ayad-u||es||rotep||pedad-u
!Apoŋ||es||doked||datad-u||es||rotep||pedad-u
|-
|-
|although||she||sick||be\NPST\IND-3||she||morning||eat.a.meal\PST\IND-3
|although||she||sick||be\NPST\IND-3||she||morning||eat.a.meal\PST\IND-3
Line 562: Line 622:
==Octal Table==  
==Octal Table==  
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
! <center>1</center>
! <center>1 ح</center>
! 2
! 2 و
! 3
! 3 ک
! 4
! 4 ط
! 5
! 5 ٮ
! 6
! 6 ص
! 7
! 7 ه
! 8
! 8 ل
|-
|-
| '''pab'''
| '''hed'''<br>حهظ
| '''keg'''
| '''wan'''<br>وان
| '''tid'''
| '''kub'''<br>کۆب
| '''soz'''
| '''toŋ'''<br>طۉگ
| '''lum'''
| '''pem'''<br>ٮهم
| '''niń'''
| '''ser'''<br>صهر
| '''har'''
| '''yim'''<br>ىيم
| '''yeʻ'''
| '''nam'''<br>نام
|-
|-
! <center>9</center>
! <center>9 لح</center>
! 10
! 10 لو
! 11
! 11 لک
! 12
! 12 لط
! 13
! 13 لٮ
! 14
! 14 لص
! 15
! 15 له
! 16
! 16 ول
|-
|-
| '''yeʻpab'''
| '''namhed'''<br>
| '''yeʻkeg'''
| '''namwan'''<br>
| '''yeʻtiḍ'''
| '''namkub'''<br>
| '''yeʻsoz'''
| '''namtoŋ'''<br>
| '''yeʻlum'''
| '''nampem'''<br>
| '''yeʻniń'''
| '''namser'''<br>
| '''yeʻhar'''
| '''namyim'''<br>
| '''keġyeʻ'''
| '''wannam'''<br>
|-
|-
! <center>17</center>
! <center>17 ولح</center>
! 18
! 18 ولو
! 19
! 19 ولک
! 20
! 20 ولط
! 21
! 21 ولٮ
! 22
! 22 ولص
! 23
! 23 وله
! 24
! 24 کل
|-
|-
| '''keġyeʻpab'''
| '''wannamhed'''<br>
| '''keġyeʻkeg'''
| '''wannamwan'''<br>
| '''keġyeʻtid'''
| '''wannamkub'''<br>
| '''keġyeʻsoz'''
| '''wannamtoŋ'''<br>
| '''keġyeʻlum'''
| '''wannampem'''<br>
| '''keġyeʻniń'''
| '''wannamser'''<br>
| '''keġyeʻhar'''
| '''wannamyim'''<br>
| '''tiḍyeʻ'''
| '''kubnam'''<br>
|-
|-
! <center>25</center>
! <center>25 کلح</center>
! 26
! 26 کلو
! 27
! 27 کلک
! 28
! 28 کلط
! 29
! 29 کلٮ
! 30
! 30 کلص
! 31
! 31 کله
! 32
! 32 طل
|-
|-
| '''tiḍyeʻpab'''
| '''kubnamhed'''<br>
| '''tiḍyeʻkeg'''
| '''kubnamwan'''<br>
| '''tiḍyeʻtid'''
| '''kubnamkub'''<br>
| '''tiḍyeʻsoz'''
| '''kubnamtoŋ'''<br>
| '''tiḍyeʻlum'''
| '''kubnampem'''<br>
| '''tiḍyeʻniń'''
| '''kubnamser'''<br>
| '''tiḍyeʻhar'''
| '''kubnamyim'''<br>
| '''sozyeʻ'''
| '''toŋnam'''<br>
|-
|-
!<center>33</center>
!<center>33 طلح</center>
! 34
! 34 طلو
! 35
! 35 طلک
! 36
! 36 طلط
! 37
! 37 طلٮ
! 38
! 38 طلص
! 39
! 39 طله
! 40
! 40 ٮل
|-
|-
| '''sozyeʻpab'''
| '''toŋnamhed'''<br>
| '''sozyeʻkeg'''
| '''toŋnamwan'''<br>
| '''sozyeʻtid'''
| '''toŋnamkub'''<br>
| '''sozyeʻsoz'''
| '''toŋnamtoŋ'''<br>
| '''sozyeʻlum'''
| '''toŋnampem'''<br>
| '''sozyeʻniń'''
| '''toŋnamser'''<br>
| '''sozyeʻhar'''
| '''toŋnamyim'''<br>
| '''lumyeʻ'''
| '''pemnam'''<br>
|-
|-
!<center>41</center>
!<center>41 ٮلح</center>
! 42
! 42 ٮلو
! 43
! 43 ٮلک
! 44
! 44 ٮلط
! 45
! 45 ٮلٮ
! 46
! 46 ٮلص
! 47
! 47 ٮله
! 48
! 48 صل
|-  
|-  
| '''lumyeʻpab'''
| '''pemnamhed'''<br>
| '''lumyeʻkeg'''
| '''pemnamwan'''<br>
| '''lumyeʻtid'''
| '''pemnamkub'''<br>
| '''lumyeʻsoz'''
| '''pemnamtoŋ'''<br>
| '''lumyeʻlum'''
| '''pemnampem'''<br>
| '''lumyeʻniń'''
| '''pemnamser'''<br>
| '''lumyeʻhar'''
| '''pemnamyim'''<br>
| '''nińyeʻ'''
| '''sernam'''<br>
|-
|-
! <center>49</center>
! <center>49 صلح</center>
! 50
! 50 صلو
! 51
! 51 صلک
! 52
! 52 صلط
! 53
! 53 صلٮ
! 54
! 54 صلص
! 55
! 55 صله
! 56
! 56 هل
|-
|-
| '''nińyeʻpab'''
| '''sernamhed'''<br>
| '''nińyeʻkeg'''
| '''sernamwan'''<br>
| '''nińyeʻtid'''
| '''sernamkub'''<br>
| '''nińyeʻsoz'''
| '''sernamtoŋ'''<br>
| '''nińyeʻlum'''
| '''sernampem'''<br>
| '''nińyeʻniń'''
| '''sernamser'''<br>
| '''nińyeʻhar'''
| '''sernamyim'''<br>
| '''haryeʻ'''
| '''yimnam'''<br>
|-
|-
! <center>57</center>
! <center>57 هلح</center>
! 58
! 58 هلو
! 59
! 59 هلک
! 60
! 60 هلط
! 61
! 61 هلٮ
! 62
! 62 هلص
! 63
! 63 هله
! 64
! 64 لل
|-
|-
| '''laḅyeʻpab'''
| '''yimnamhed'''<br>
| '''laḅyeʻkeg'''
| '''yimnamwan'''<br>
| '''laḅyeʻtid'''
| '''yimnamkub'''<br>
| '''laḅyeʻsoz'''
| '''yimnamtoŋ'''<br>
| '''laḅyeʻlum'''
| '''yimnampem'''<br>
| '''laḅyeʻniń'''
| '''yimnamser'''<br>
| '''laḅyeʻhar'''
| '''yimnamyim'''<br>
| '''yeʻyeʻ'''
| '''namnam'''<br>
|}
|}


[[Liwadi: Dictionaries]]
[[Liwadi: Dictionaries]]

Latest revision as of 10:37, 2 August 2023

THE GRAMMAR OF LIWADI,
صا کهنۉم ىاخکۉر نه صا کهنۉم نه صۆ لىواظ
sa Kenom Yaxkor ne sa Kenom ne su Liwad

Table of Phonemes

IPA /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /p/ /b/ /ɸ/ /β/ /t/ /d/ /θ/ /ð/ /k/ /g/ /χ/ /ɣ/ /ʔ/ /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /h/ /w/ /j/ /ɾ/ /l/ /ɬ/ /ʦ/ /i/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ä/ /o/ /u/
Latin M m N n Ŋ ŋ P p B b ṗ ḃ T t D d ṫ ḋ K k G g ḳ ġ ʻ S s Z z Š š H h W w Y y R r L l ḷ Ś ś I i E e ė A a O o U u
Arabic م ن گ ٮ
1 		ﺏ ٺ ٻ ط
2 		ظ د ذ ک
3 		ݢ ٯ
4 		ڧ ع ص
5 		ض ڝ ح
6 		و
7 		ي ر ل
8 		ݪ ج ی ه ا ۉ ۆ
Name Mi
مى 		Ne
نه 		Ŋo
گۉ 		Pi
ٮى 		Bi
بى 		Ṗi
ٺى 		Ḃi
ٻى 		Te
طه 		De
ظه 		Ṫe
ده 		Ḋe
ذه 		Ko
کۉ 		Go
ݢۉ 		Ḳo
ٯۉ 		Ġo
ڧۉ 		ʻu
عۆ 		Sa
صا 		Za
ضا 		Ša
ڝا 		Hu
حۆ 		Wi
وى 		Yo
ىۉ 		Ra
را 		Le
له 		Ḷe
ݪه 		Śa
جا 		i
ى 		e
ه 		ė
 a
ا 		o
ۉ 		u
ۆ
  • The consonants in blue are those used as numerals in the octal numeral system, e.g., 16 ٮو.
  • <ė> does not occur without a consonant, so a diacritic is used, e.g. صٙ, sė.


Grammar - Kenom Yaxkor کهنۉم ياخکۉر

Syllables, Accent and Punctuation

  • 001. All basic words (lemmas) end in a consonant with the exception of the prepositions (VCV, CV or VV), the articles (CV), and (he), and or (u).
  • 002. The accent of disyllabic words falls on the ultimate syllable.
  • 003. The accent remains on this ultima when prefixes or suffixes are added.

Word Order - Likad Nigup لىکاظ نىݢۆٮ

  • 004. Liwadi word order is SOV, subject-object-verb.
  • 005. The indirect object precedes the direct object:
I gave the egg to the man.
Em kėsu in sa ruzad-na meŋŋama.
Em k' su in sa ruzad-na meŋam-a
I to the man the egg-OBJ give\PST\IND-3p
  • 006. The genitive noun follows the head noun:
The man's throat hurts.
Sa bapom ne su in yasaru.
Sa bapom ne su in yasar-u
the throat of the man hurt\NPST\IND-3p
  • 007. Adjectives and determiners precede the nouns they qualify.
  • 008. The adjective follows the standard of comparison.
  • 009. The adjective precedes the dependent verb.
  • 010. Adverbs follow the verbs they modify.
  • 011. Adverbials of time precede those of space.

Verbs - Yipod Liḳdar يىٮۉظ لىٯظلر

  • 012. Verbs are a class of words that convey an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
  • 013. Most Liwadi verbs consist of what is called a triliteral stem, three consonants, CVCVC. Prefixes, suffixes and infixes specify the meaning of the verb. A few verbs have the form VCVC.
  • 014. Tense is a grammatical category which expresses the time at which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs. There are three tenses in Liwadi, present (PRS), past (PST) and future (FUT).
  • 015. The present tense is indicated by a in the first vowel position: maʻak, fall. This form is the lemma.
  • 016. The past tense is indicated be e in the first vowel position: meʻak, fell.
  • 017. The future tense is indicated be u in the first vowel position: muʻak, fell.
  • 017. Mood is a grammatical category by which the speaker expresses his attitude toward what he is saying.
  • 018. The vowel in the second vowel position indicates the mood.
  • 019. The indicative mood (IND) is indicated by a in the second vowel position: maʻak, fall.
  • 020. The subjunctive mood (SBJ) is indicated by e in the second vowel position: maʻek, may fall.
  • 021. The imperative mood (IMP) is indicated by i in the second vowel position: maʻik, fall!
  • 022. This same form is used for the cohortative (HORT) and jussive (JUS) moods with the appropriate pronoun following in the objective form:
anip es-na, Let him sing.
anip emer-na, Let's sing.
  • 023. The Liwadi verb is marked for person, but not for number. The accent remains on the second syllable, the penultimate: nadada, I/we swim; nadadi, you (sg./pl) swim; nadadu, he/they swim.
  • 024. The passive (PAS) form of the verb is formed by prefixing the verb with gė- and adding the object suffix to the subject:
The fish was cooked.
Sa gab-na gėrenaku.
sa gab-na gė-renak-u
the fish-OBJ PAS-cook\PST\IND-3
The tree is burned.
Sa ikam-na gėnapaʻu.
Sa ikam-na gė-napaʻ-u
the tree-OBJ PAS-burn\NPST\IND-3
  • If there is no initial consonant, then only g is prefixed:
The mother is loved.
Su am-na gadaru.
Su am-na g-adar-u
the mother-OBJ PAS-love\NPST\IND-3
  • 025. The non-past infinitive is formed by prefixing mė- to the non-past indicative form: mėpasad, to see; mėyaʻaʻ, to bend.
The past infinitive is formed by prefixing mė to the past indicative form: mėpesad, to have seen; mėyeʻaʻ, to have bent.
The passive infinitive is formed by prefixing both mė- and gė-: mėgėpesad, to have been seen; mėgėyeʻaʻ, to have been bent.
  • 026. A verbal noun, or gerund (GER), is indicated by o in the second vowel position: pazad, want; pazod, wanting.
Swimming strengthens my limbs.
Ya nadod ya em ŋeṗʻor-na yawayu.
Ya nadod ya em ŋeṗʻor-na yaway-u
INDEF swim\GER INDEF my limb-OBJ strengthen\NPST\IND-3
  • 027. Sentence negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the word ki:
Em adara ki, I do not love.
  • 028. A question (Q) is indicated by the use of the final particle ha:
Em eŋ-na adara, I love you.
Em eŋ-na adara ha?, Do I love you?
  • If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made followed by the phrase mubam ha, true?
Su nulun wapayu, mubam ha?
The sun is shining, isn't it?
Su nulun wepayu, mubam ha?
The sun was shining, wasn't it?
  • If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made followed by the phrase mubam ha, true?
Su nulen wapadu wa, mubam ha?
The sun isn't shining, is it?
Su nulen wepadu wa, mubam ha?
The sun wasn't shining, was it?
  • 029. Dependent verbs, such as infinitives and gerunds, precede the verb or adjective upon which they are dependent:
I was afraid to touch a toad.
Em ya yuʻag-na mėmabas ʻedaga.
Em ya yuʻag-na mė-mabas ʻedag-a
I INDEF toad-OBJ INF-touch fear\PST\IND-3
He wants to go.
Es mėmanas pazadu.
Es mė-manas pazad-u
he INF-go want\NPST\IND-3
  • A direct object is placed before the infinitive:
I wanted him to go.
Em es-na mėmanas pezadu.
Em es-na mė-manas pezad-u
I he-OBJ INF-go want\PST\IND-3
  • 030. Verbs may be formed from perceptible nouns and from adjectives by using them as verbs: ʻipay, flower:
The roses bloomed yesterday.
Su riṗgir aranulun ʻepayu.
Su riṗg-ir aranulun ʻepay-u
the rose-PL yesterday bloom\PST\IND-3
  • If the adjective is of the form CVC, then the verb takes the form VCVC: pas, bad; apas, be bad.
  • 031. Transitive verbs may be formed from adjectives by treating them as verbs: puyar, wide:
They are widening the road.
Eser sa yurin-na payaru.
Eser sa yurin-na payar-u
they the road-OBJ wide\NPST\IND-3

Nouns - Nanal Liḳdar نانال لىݢظلر

  • 032. Nouns are a class of words that function as the names of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.
  • 033. There are no noun classes in Liwadi.
  • 034. A noun must be preceded by a determiner or an adjective:
The man is here.
Su in yam atadu.
Su in yam atad-u
the man here be\NPST\IND-3
Men are here.
Yu inir yam atadu.
Yu in-ir yam atad-u
INDEF man-PL here be\NPST\IND-3
  • 035. Plurality (PL) is indicated by deleting the second vowel and placing it after the word with the suffix -r; the plural suffix bears the accent: sa erim, stone; sa ermir, the stones.
  • If the middle consonant is a stop, it is lenited. This is indicated orthographically with a dot under the consonant: sa medop, the river; sa meḍpor, the rivers; ya medop, a river; ya meḍpor, rivers.
The stones are large.
Sa ermir bigak atadu.
Sa erm-ir bigak atad-u
the stone-PL large be\NPST\IND-3
I see the stones.
Em sa ermir-na pasada.
Em sa erm-ir-na pasad-a
I the stone-PL-OBJ see\NPST\IND-3
  • If the noun is monosyllabic, -Vr is added: gub, fish; gubur, fishes.
  • If the noun is CVCV, -r is added: yoŋa, shoulder; yoŋar, shoulders.
  • 036. Possession is indicated by the preposition ne, of:
sa yitoy ne su takag; the child's smile.
  • 037. The particle -na marks the direct object (OBJ) of the verb:
I see the bird.
Em su siʻ-na pasada.
Em su siʻ-na pasad-a
I the bird-OBJ see\NPST\IND-3
  • 038. The prefix kė- is affixed to the determiner to indicate the indirect object: kėsu takag, to the child.
  • 039. Nouns naming a person characterized by an adjective are formed by using the animate definite article: zusep, young; su zusep, youth; tanam, old; su tanam, elder.
  • 040. Abstract nouns (-ty, -ness, -tion, etc.) are derived from adjectives by using the inanimate definite article: yuzup, short; sa yuzup, shortness.
  • 041. Nouns denoting perceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCoC: padaz, bathe; ya pidoz, bath.
  • 042. Nouns denoting impercptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCuC: nagap, order; nigup, order.
  • 043. A noun may be specified as masculine or feminine by using the words in and min, respectively: siʻ, bird; minsiʻ, hen; insiʻ, cock.
  • 044. Nouns may be used to modify other nouns: sa dap muduk, the mountain stream.
  • 045. Collective nouns are formed from nouns or adjectives by using the word rozud, group: sa siʻir rozud, the flock of birds; sa gubur rozud, the school of fish; sa buwper rozud, archipelago.
  • 046. The diminutive of nouns is formed with the prefix t(ė): in, man; tin, boy; min, woman; tėmin, girl.
  • 047. The agent of a verb is formed with the word sugul, person: nap, sing; nap sugul, singer.

Modifiers - Namod Liḳdar نامۉظ لىݢظلر

  • 048. In Liwadi grammar adjectives, adverbs and determiners are classed together as modifiers.

Adjectives - Kaŋop Liḳdar کاگۉٮ لىݢظلر

  • 049. Adjectives are a class of words which qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.
  • 050. Adjectives are placed before the noun: su ŋor tin, the good boy.
  • 051. The one degree of comparison, known as the comparative (COMP), is formed by reduplication:
dolup, red; dolupdolup, redder, reddest.
putoy, far; putoyputoy, farther, farthest.
  • 052. In comparisons than is translated by le:
This flower is bluer than that flower
Wed ʻapud yidakyidak le dad ʻapud adayu.
Wed ʻapud yidak~yidak le dad ʻapud aday-u
this flower COMP~blue than that FLOWER be\NPST\IND-3
  • 053. The absolute superlative is formed be reduplicating the first syllable (CV), puputoy, very far, or (VC) yiyidak, very red.
  • 054. Negative comparison is formed with the word suyuk, less: putoy, distant; suyuk putoy, less/least distant.
  • 055. The comparison of equality is formed with the conjunction yė, as: yidak, red; yidol, as red:
This flower is as red as blood.
Wed ʻapud yėdolup yėgal atadu.
Wed ʻipay yol idol yol gal atad-u
this flower as red as blood be\NPST\IND-3
  • 056. Participles are a form of a verb that is used to modify a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase, playing a role similar to an adjective or adverb.
  • 057. There are two participles in Liwadi.
  • a. The non-past participle has the form CaCuC: su baŋun nepud, the sinking boat.
  • b. The past participle has the form CeCuC: sa beŋun nepud, the sunken boat.
  • 058. Nouns of material may be used like adjectives: sa erim ruteŋ, the stone house.
  • 059. Word negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the prefix o-: lunaŋ, even; o-lunaŋ, uneven.
  • 060. Adjectives with the meaning without are expressed with the preposition ruk, without: yihud, hope; ruk yihud, hopeless. With this use of ruk, a determiner is not used.
  • 061. Adjectives denoting the possession of that which is named in the noun root is formed by changing the vowels to o: yisun, anger; yoson, angry.
  • 062. Adjectives denoting pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun or verb root are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to i: supuʻ, fog; sipiʻ, foggy; ʻayap, tire; ʻiyip, tired.

Determiners - Yaros Liḳdar يارۉص لىݢظلر

  • 063. Determiners are a class of words that serve to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc.
  • 064. There are three definite articles, the animate su, the inanimate sa, and the proper se: in, man; su in, the man; erim, rock; sa erim, the rock; se Kuhud, God.
  • 065. There are two indefinite articles, the animate yu and the inanimate ya: min, woman; yu min, a woman; leŋud, bed; ya leŋud, a bed.
  • The indefinite article is used when no other modifier is present:
Flowers bloom in the rainy season.
yu ʻaṗdur zu sa binol simud ʻapadu.
yu ʻiṗy-ar zu sa binel wilam ʻapay-u
INDEF flower-PL in the rain season bloom-NPST\IND-3
  • 066. Numerals precede the noun in the absence of a determiner:
Three women are cooking.
Kub minir ranaku.
kub min-ir ranak-u
three woman-PL cook\NPST\IND-3
  • They follow the noun if the noun is preceded by a determiner:
These three women are cooking.
Wed minir kub ranaku.
Wed min-ir tkub ranak-u
these woman-PL three cook\NPST\IND-3
  • 067. The demonstrative determiners are wed, this/these; and dad, that/those, e.g., dad siʻ, that bird; wed ʻaṗdur, these flowers.
  • 068. The possessive determiners are formed by inserting the personal pronoun between the definite article and that which is possessed; the vowel of the pronoun is then elided:
sa 'm tug, my hand; su 'ŋ uruʻ, your father.
  • 069. The elective indefinite determiner is nol, any.
  • 070. The assertive indefinite determiner is yazuŋ, some.

Numerals - Limor لىمۉر

  • 071. Liwadi has an octal numeral system.
1
 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
hed
حهظ 		wan
وان 		kub
کۆب 		toŋ
طۉگ 		pem
ٮهم 		ser
صهر 		yim
يىم 		nam
نام
  • 072. The numerals 9-15 are formed by suffixing the proper cardirnal to nam, eight.
9
 10 11 12 13 14 15
namhed namwan namkub namtoŋ nampem namser namyim
  • 073. The numerals 16-64 are formed by prefixing the proper cardirnal to nam, eight.
16
 24 32 40 48 56 64
wannam kubnam toŋnam pemnam sernam yimnam namnam
  • 074. Compounds of 64 can be made by prefixing the proper ordinal to namnam: wannamnam, 128, but the Liwadis seldom need to count that high.
  • 075. The ordinals are made by adding the suffix -it to the cardinal number: hedit, first.
  • 076. The adverbial numbers expressing how many times are made by adding the suffix -us to the ordinal number: wanus, twice; minamus, eight times.
  • 077. Multiplicative numbers expressing how many times as many are formed by adding -ar to the cardinal number: namar, eight times as many.
Em kubar lomder-na dawaŋa yol es dawaŋu.
I have three times as many bananas as he has.
Em kub-ar lomder-na dawaŋ-a yol es dawaŋ-u
I three-MULT banana\PL-OBJ have\NPST\IND-1 as he have\NPST\IND-3
  • 078. Distributive numbers (DSTR) expressing at a time are formed by duplicating the first syllable of the required number.
Su inir wawan sa benep-na serapu.
The men crossed the bridge two at a time.
Su in-ir ke~keg sa benep-na serap-u
the man-PL DSTR~two the bridge-OBJ cross-PST\IND-3
  • 079. Distributive numbers expressing each are formed by adding the determiner yok, each, to the cardinal number.
Emer ige kuḃyok ruzlar-na dekaka.
We split into groups of three each.
Emer ige kuḃ.yok ruzl-ar-na dekak-a
we into three.each group-PL-OBJ split\PST\IND-3

Adverbs - Nuker Liḳdar نۆکهر ليخظار

  • 080. Adverbs are a class of words that modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a determiner, a noun phrase, a clause, or a sentence. They typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc.
  • 081. They have the same form as the adjective, but follow the verb they modify:
su iliz in, the brave man.
Es medab iliz, He acted bravely.
  • 082. The comparative of these adverbs is formed in the same way as are adjectives; iliz, bravely; iliziliz, more/most bravely.

Pronouns - Nuhon Liḳdar نۆحۉن لىݢظلر

  • 083. Pronouns are a class of words that substitute for a noun or noun phrase. There are seven types of pronouns in Liwadi.
  • 084. The personal pronouns are em, I; emer, we; eŋ, you (sg.); eŋer, you (pl.); (in)es, he; (min)es, she; et, it; eser/eter, they.
  • 085. The interrogative pronoun is la which stands for the interrogative pronouns who, what and the interrogative adjective which.
  • 086. The reflexive pronouns are translated by using the personal pronoun as both subject and object:
Em em-na yesara.
I hurt myself.
Em em-na yesar-a
I I-OBJ hurt\PST\IND-1
  • 087. The intensive pronouns are formed with the noun sazal, self:
Emsazal dakaya.
I myself will go.
Em.sazal dakay-a
I.self go\NPST\IND-1
Su minsazal elo sa yamuŋ dakaya.
The woman herself will go to the store.
Su min.sizul elo sa yamuŋ dakay-a
the woman.self to the store go\NPST\IND-3
  • 088. The demonstrative pronouns are the same as the demonstrative determiners, wed, this; weder, these; and dad, that; dadar, those, and may take the direct object particle as needed:
Em dadar-na pazada.
I want those.
Em dad-ar-na pazad-a
I this-PL-OBJ want\NPST\IND-1
  • 089. The indefinite pronouns are made from the indefinite determiners: nul nuhon, anyone, anybody, nul gurop, anything; rag nuhon, someone, somebody; rag gurop, something; wa nuhon, no one, nobody; wa gurop, nothing; yok nuhon, everyone, everybody; yok gurop, everything.
  • 090. There are no possessive pronouns. The possessor is expressed with a prepositional phrase using ne, of; the vowel of the pronoun is elided:
Wed sa 'ŋ ʻipay datadu, dad ne 'm datadu.
This is your flower, that is mine.
Wed sa 'ŋ ʻipay datad-u dad ne 'm datad-u
this the you flower be\NPST\IND\-3 that of I be\NPST\IND-3
  • 091. There are no relative pronouns. The relative clause is an independent clause that precedes the noun it modifies. Any determiner precedes the relative clause. The relative clause is in italics.
Sa es ya rinap-na renaku ŋisil datadu.
The meat which she cooked is delicious.
Sa es ya rinap-na renak-u ŋisil datad-u
the she INDEF meat-OB PST\cook\IND-3 delicious be\NPST\IND-3
Em su es em-na ʻebasu in-na dapaga.
I will kill the man who wounded me.
em su es em-na ʻebas-u in-OBJ dapag-a
I the he I-OBJ wound\PST\IND-3 man-OB kill\NPST\IND-1
Sa mines et-na renaku enip idol datadu.
The pot in which she cooked it is red.
Sa min-es et-na renak-u enip idol datad-u
the F-3 3-OBJ cook\PST\IND-3 pot red be\NPST\IND-3
Em tid eter yo sa tal nadayu tiḳgar-na asada.
I see three children who are playing in the sea.
Em tid et-er yo sa tal naday-u tiḳg-ar-na asad-a
I three 3-PL in the sea play\NPST\IND-3 child-PL-OBJ see\NPST\IND-1

Prepositions - Tiyon Liḳdar طىيۉن لىݢظلر

  • 092. Liwadi uses prepositions, a class of words that express spatial or temporal relations (in, under, towards, before) or mark various semantic roles (of, for): zu sa nipap, at the beach.
The prepositions are listed in a separate dictionary where a fuller description of them can be given.

Conjunctions - Yirup Liḳdar يىرۆٮ لىݢظلر

  • 093. A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases or clauses.
  • 094. In Liwadi there are three types of conjunctions.
  • 095. A coordinate conjunction joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance:
Su 'm insad h' em ʻiṗtar-na he tuṗyar-na dararu.
My brother and I like fruits and vegetables.
su em insad he em ʻiṗt-ar-na he tuṗy-ar-na darar-u
the my brother and I fruit-PL-OBJ and vegetable-PL-OBJ like\NPST\IND-3
  • 096. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join two or more items of equal syntactic importance:
Eŋ u sepur padadi u eŋ latadi.
You will either eat your supper or go to bed.
Eŋ u sepur padad-i u eŋ latad-i
you or supper eat\NPST\IND-2 or you go.to.bed\NPST\IND-2
  • 097. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause and a dependent clause. The dependent clause may be placed either before or after the main clause.
Apoŋ es doked datadu, es rotep pedadu.
Although she is sick, she ate her breakfast.
Apoŋ es doked datad-u es rotep pedad-u
although she sick be\NPST\IND-3 she morning eat.a.meal\PST\IND-3


Octal Table

1 ح
 2 و 3 ک 4 ط 5 ٮ 6 ص 7 ه 8 ل
hed
حهظ 		wan
وان 		kub
کۆب 		toŋ
طۉگ 		pem
ٮهم 		ser
صهر 		yim
ىيم 		nam
نام
9 لح
 10 لو 11 لک 12 لط 13 لٮ 14 لص 15 له 16 ول
namhed
 namwan
 namkub
 namtoŋ
 nampem
 namser
 namyim
 wannam
17 ولح
 18 ولو 19 ولک 20 ولط 21 ولٮ 22 ولص 23 وله 24 کل
wannamhed
 wannamwan
 wannamkub
 wannamtoŋ
 wannampem
 wannamser
 wannamyim
 kubnam
25 کلح
 26 کلو 27 کلک 28 کلط 29 کلٮ 30 کلص 31 کله 32 طل
kubnamhed
 kubnamwan
 kubnamkub
 kubnamtoŋ
 kubnampem
 kubnamser
 kubnamyim
 toŋnam
33 طلح
 34 طلو 35 طلک 36 طلط 37 طلٮ 38 طلص 39 طله 40 ٮل
toŋnamhed
 toŋnamwan
 toŋnamkub
 toŋnamtoŋ
 toŋnampem
 toŋnamser
 toŋnamyim
 pemnam
41 ٮلح
 42 ٮلو 43 ٮلک 44 ٮلط 45 ٮلٮ 46 ٮلص 47 ٮله 48 صل
pemnamhed
 pemnamwan
 pemnamkub
 pemnamtoŋ
 pemnampem
 pemnamser
 pemnamyim
 sernam
49 صلح
 50 صلو 51 صلک 52 صلط 53 صلٮ 54 صلص 55 صله 56 هل
sernamhed
 sernamwan
 sernamkub
 sernamtoŋ
 sernampem
 sernamser
 sernamyim
 yimnam
57 هلح
 58 هلو 59 هلک 60 هلط 61 هلٮ 62 هلص 63 هله 64 لل
yimnamhed
 yimnamwan
 yimnamkub
 yimnamtoŋ
 yimnampem
 yimnamser
 yimnamyim
 namnam

Liwadi: Dictionaries

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