Liwadi: Syntax

THE GRAMMAR OF LIWADI,

صا کهنۉم ىاخکۉر نه صا کهنۉم نه صۆ لىواظ

sa Kenom Yaxkor ne sa Kenom ne su Liwad

Table of Phonemes

IPA	/h/	/χ/	/ɣ/	/w/	/o/	/u/	/k/	/g/	/ŋ/	/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/s/	/z/	/j/	/i/	/e/	/ɛ/	/ä/	/n/	/m/	/l/	/ɾ/	/ʔ/
Latin	H h	ḳ	ġ	W w	O o	U u	K k	G g	Ń ń	T t	D d	ṭ	ḍ	P p	B b	ṗ	ḃ	S s	Z z	Y y	I i	E e	ė	A a	N n	M m	L l	R r	ʻ
Arabic	ح 1	خ	ݗ	و 2	ۉ	ۆ	ک 3	ݢ	گ	ط 4	ظ	د	ذ	ٮ 5	ﺏ	ڡ	ڢ	ص 6	ض	ی	ي	ه 7		ا	ن	م	ل 8	ر	ع
Name	Ha حا	Ḳa خا	Ġa ݗا	Wa وا	Wo وۉ	Wu وۆ	Kaf کاڡ	Gaf ݢاڡ	Ńaf گاڡ	Tal طال	Dal ظال	Ṭal رال	Ḍal زال	Pa ٮا	Ba با	Ṗa ڡا	Ḃa ڢا	Sad صاط	Zad ضاط	Ya ىا	Yi ىي	Ye ىه	Yė ىٰ	Alif ا	Nun نۆن	Mim ميم	Lam لام	Ram رام	ʻam عام

• The letters in red are those used as the numerals in the octal system, e.g., ول, wannam, 16.

Grammar - Kenom Yaxkor کهنۉم ىاخکۉر

Syllables, Accent and Punctuation

• 001. All basic words (lemmas) end in a consonant with the exception of the prepositions (VCV, CV or VV), the articles (CV), and (he), and or (u).
• 002. The accent of disyllabic words falls on the ultimate syllable.
• 003. The accent remains on this ultima when prefixes or suffixes are added.

Word Order - Likad Nigup لىکاظ نىݢۆٮ

• 004. Liwadi word order is SOV, subject-object-verb.
• 005. The indirect object precedes the direct object:

I gave the egg to the man.

Em kėsu in sa ruzad-na meńama.

Em	k'	su	in	sa	ruzad-na	meńam-a
I	to	the	man	the	egg-OBJ	give\PST\IND-3p

• 006. The genitive noun follows the head noun:

The man's throat hurts.

Sa bapom ne su in yasaru.

Sa	bapom	ne	su	in	yasar-u
the	throat	of	the	man	hurt\NPST\IND-3p

• 007. Adjectives and determiners precede the nouns they qualify.
• 008. The adjective follows the standard of comparison.
• 009. The adjective precedes the dependent verb.
• 010. Adverbs follow the verbs they modify.
• 011. Adverbials of time precede those of space.

Verbs - Yipod Liḳdar يىٮۉظ لىݢظلر

• 012. Verbs are a class of words that convey an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
• 013. Most Liwadi verbs consist of what is called a triliteral stem, three consonants, CVCVC. Prefixes, suffixes and infixes specify the meaning of the verb. A few verbs have the form VCVC.
• 014. Tense is a grammatical category which expresses the time at which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs. There are two tenses in Liwadi, non-past (NPST) and past (PST).
• 015. The non-past tense is indicated by a in the first vowel position: maʻak, fall. This form is the lemma.
• 016. The past tense is indicated be e in the first vowel position: meʻak, fell.
• 017. Mood is a grammatical category by which the speaker expresses his attitude toward what he is saying.
• 018. The vowel in the second vowel position indicates the mood.
• 019. The indicative mood (IND) is indicated by a in the second vowel position: maʻak, fall.
• 020. The subjunctive mood (SBJ) is indicated by e in the second vowel position: maʻek, may fall.
• 021. The imperative mood (IMP) is indicated by i in the second vowel position: maʻik, fall!
• 022. This same form is used for the cohortative (COH) and jussive (JUS) moods with the appropriate pronoun following in the objective form:

anip es-na, Let him sing.

anip emer-na, Let's sing.

• 023. The Liwadi verb is marked for person, but not for number. The accent remains on the second syllable, the penultimate: nadada, I/we swim; nadadi, you (sg./pl) swim; nadadu, he/they swim.
• 024. The passive (PAS) form of the verb is formed by prefixing the verb with gė- and adding the object suffix to the subject:

The fish was cooked.

Sa gab-na gėrenaku.

sa	gab-na	gė-renak-u
the	fish-OBJ	PAS-cook\PST\IND-3

The tree is burned.

Sa ikam-na gėnapaʻu.

Sa	ikam-na	gė-napaʻ-u
the	tree-OBJ	PAS-burn\NPST\IND-3

• If there is no initial consonant, then only g is prefixed:

The mother is loved.

Su am-na gadaru.

Su	am-na	g-adar-u
the	mother-OBJ	PAS-love\NPST\IND-3

• 025. The non-past infinitive is formed by prefixing mė- to the non-past indicative form: mėpasad, to see; mėyaʻaʻ, to bend.

The past infinitive is formed by prefixing mė to the past indicative form: mėpesad, to have seen; mėyeʻaʻ, to have bent.

The passive infinitive is formed by prefixing both mė- and gė-: mėgėpesad, to have been seen; mėgėyeʻaʻ, to have been bent.

• 026. A verbal noun, or gerund (GER), is indicated by o in the second vowel position: pazad, want; pazod, wanting.

Swimming strengthens my limbs.

Ya nadod ya em ńeṗʻor-na yawayu.

Ya	nadod	ya	em	ńeṗʻor-na	yaway-u
INDEF	swim\GER	INDEF	my	limb-OBJ	strengthen\NPST\IND-3

• 027. Sentence negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the word wa:

Em adara wa, I do not love.

• 028. A question (Q) is indicated by the use of the final particle ha:

Em eń-na adara, I love you.

Em eń-na adara ha?, Do I love you?

• If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made followed by the phrase mubam ha, true?

Su nulen wapayu, mubam ha?

The sun is shining, isn't it?

Su nulen wepayu, mubam ha?

The sun was shining, wasn't it?

• If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made followed by the phrase mubam ha, true?

Su nulen wapadu wa, mubam ha?

The sun isn't shining, is it?

Su nulen wepadu wa, mubam ha?

The sun wasn't shining, was it?

• 029. Dependent verbs, such as infinitives and gerunds, precede the verb or adjective upon which they are dependent:

I was afraid to touch a toad.

Em ya yuʻag-na mėmabas ʻedaga.

Em	ya	yuʻag-na	mė-mabas	ʻedag-a
I	INDEF	toad-OBJ	INF-touch	fear\PST\IND-3

He wants to go.

Es mėmanas pazadu.

Es	mė-manas	pazad-u
he	INF-go	want\NPST\IND-3

• A direct object is placed before the infinitive:

I wanted him to go.

Em es-na mėmanas pezadu.

Em	es-na	mė-manas	pezad-u
I	he-OBJ	INF-go	want\PST\IND-3

• 030. Verbs may be formed from perceptible nouns and from adjectives by using them as verbs: ʻipay, flower:

The roses bloomed yesterday.

Su riṗgir aranulen ʻepayu.

Su	riṗg-ir	aranulen	ʻepay-u
the	rose-PL	yesterday	bloom\PST\IND-3

• If the adjective is of the form CVC, then the verb takes the form VCVC: pas, bad; apas, be bad.

• 031. Transitive verbs may be formed from adjectives by treating them as verbs: puyar, wide:

They are widening the road.

Eser sa yurin-na payaru.

Eser	sa	yurin-na	payar-u
they	the	road-OBJ	wide\NPST\IND-3

Nouns - Nanal Liḳdar نانال لىݢظلر

• 032. Nouns are a class of words that function as the names of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.
• 033. There are no noun classes in Liwadi.
• 034. A noun must be preceded by a determiner or an adjective:

The man is here.

Su in yem ayadu.

Su	in	yem	ayad-u
the	man	here	be\NPST\IND-3

Men are here.

Yu inir yem ayadu.

Yu	in-ir	yem	ayad-u
INDEF	man-PL	here	be\NPST\IND-3

• 035. Plurality (PL) is indicated by deleting the second vowel and placing it after the word with the suffix -r; the plural suffix bears the accent: sa erim, stone; sa ermir, the stones.

• If the middle consonant is a stop, it is lenited. This is indicated orthographically with a dot under the consonant: sa medop, the river; sa meḍpor, the rivers; ya medop, a river; ya meḍpor, rivers.

The stones are large.

Sa ermir bigak ayadu.

Sa	erm-ir	bigak	ayad-u
the	stone-PL	large	be\NPST\IND-3

I see the stones.

Em sa ermir-na pasada.

Em	sa	erm-ir-na	pasad-a
I	the	stone-PL-OBJ	see\NPST\IND-3

• If the noun is monosyllabic, -Vr is added: gab, fish; gabar, fishes.
• If the noun is CVCV, -r is added: yońa, shoulder; yońar, shoulders.

• 036. Possession is indicated by the preposition ne, of:

sa yitoy ne su tikag; the child's smile.

• 037. The particle -na marks the direct object (OBJ) of the verb:

I see the bird.

Em su ziʻop-na pasada.

Em	su	ziʻop-na	pasad-a
I	the	bird-OBJ	see\NPST\IND-3

• 038. Nouns naming a person characterized by an adjective are formed by using the animate definite article: zuʻip, young; su zuʻip, youth; tinam, old; su tinam, elder.
• 039. Abstract nouns (-ty, -ness, -tion, etc.) are derived from adjectives by using the inanimate definite article: yizup, short; sa yizup, shortness.
• 040. Nouns denoting perceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCoC: pataz, bathe; ya pitoz, bath.
• 041. Nouns denoting imperceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCuC: nagap, order; nigup, order.
• 042. A noun may be specified as masculine or feminine by using the words in and min, respectively: ziʻop, bird; minziʻop, hen; inziʻop, cock.
• 043. Nouns may be used to modify other nouns: sa dap turak, the mountain stream.
• 044. Collective nouns are formed from nouns or adjectives by using the word yuraz, group: sa ziʻpor yuraz, the flock of birds; sa gabar yuraz, the school of fish; sa ginńer yuraz, archipelago.
• 045. The diminutive of nouns is formed with the prefix t(ė): in, man; tin, boy; min, woman; tėmin, girl.
• 046. The agent of a verb is formed with the word nuhon, person: bamat, sing; bamat nuhon, singer.

Modifiers - Namod Liḳdar نامۉظ لىݢظلر

• 047. In Liwadi grammar adjectives, adverbs and determiners are classed together as modifiers.

Adjectives - Kańop Liḳdar کاگۉٮ لىݢظلر

• 048. Adjectives are a class of words which qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.
• 049. Adjectives are placed before the noun: su ńor tin, the good boy.
• 050. The one degree of comparison, known as the comparative (COMP), is formed by reduplication:

idol, red; idolidol, redder, reddest.

putoy, far; putoyputoy, farther, farthest.

• 051. In comparisons than is translated by ini:

This flower is bluer than that flower

Wed ʻipay yidakyidak ini dad ʻipay adaya.

Wed	ʻipay	yidak~yidak	ini	dad	ʻipay	adaya
this	flower	COMP~blue	than	that	FLOWER	be\NPST\IND-3

• 052. The absolute superlative is formed be reduplicating the first syllable (CV), puputoy, very far, or (VC) ididol, very red.
• 053. Negative comparison is formed with the word ʻeyoń, less: putoy, distant; ʻeyoń putoy, less/least distant.
• 054. The comparison of equality is formed with the conjunction yol, as: idol, red; yol idol, as red:

This flower is as red as blood.

Wed ʻipay yol idol yol gal ayadu.

Wed	ʻipay	yol	idol	yol	gal	ayad-u
this	flower	as	red	as	blood	be-NPST\IND-3

• 055. Participles are a form of a verb that is used to modify a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase, playing a role similar to an adjective or adverb.
• 056. There are two participles in Liwadi.

• a. The non-past participle has the form CaCuC: su nadud gab, the swimming fish.
• b. The past participle has the form CeCuC: sa beńun nipad, the sunken boat.

• 057. Nouns of material may be used like adjectives: sa erim rutiń, the stone house.
• 058. Word negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the prefix o-: lunań, even; o-lunań, uneven.
• 059. Adjectives with the meaning without are expressed with the preposition isi, without: tidor, hope; isi ya tidor, hopeless.
• 060. Adjectives denoting the possession of that which is named in the noun root is formed by changing the vowels to o: yisun, anger; yoson, angry.
• 061. Adjectives denoting pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun or verb root are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to i: soʻek, fog; siʻik, foggy; sataʻ, tire; sitiʻ, tired.

Determiners - Yaros Liḳdar يارۉص لىݢظلر

• 062. Determiners are a class of words that serve to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc.
• 063. There are three definite articles, the animate su, the inanimate sa, and the proper se: in, man; su in, the man; erem, rock; sa erem, the rock; se Yugun, God.
• 064. There are two indefinite articles, the animate yu and the inanimate ya: min, woman; yu min, a woman; litad, bed; ya litad, a bed.

• The indefinite article is used when no other modifier is present:

Flowers bloom in the rainy season.

yu ʻiṗyar zu sa binel wilam ʻapayu.

yu	ʻiṗy-ar	zu	sa	binel	wilam	ʻapay-u
INDEF	flower-PL	in	the	rain	season	bloom-NPST\IND-3

• 065. Numerals precede the noun in the absence of a determiner:

Three women are cooking.

Tid minir ranaku.

Tid	min-ir	ranak-u
three	woman-PL	cook\NPST\IND-3

• They follow the noun if the noun is preceded by a determiner:

These three women are cooking.

Wed minir tid ranaku.

Wed	min-ir	tid	ranak-u
these	woman-PL	three	cook\NPST\IND-3

• 066. The demonstrative determiners are wed, this/these; and dad, that/those, e.g., dad ziʻop, that bird; wed ʻiṗyar, these flowers.
• 067. The possessive determiners are formed by inserting the personal pronoun between the definite article and that which is possessed; the vowel of the pronoun is then elided:

sa 'm tag, my hand; su 'ń bab, your father.

• 068. The elective indefinite determiner is nul, any.
• 069. The assertive indefinite determiner is rag, some.

Numerals - Limor لىمۉر

• 070. Liwadi has an octal numeral system.

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
hed حهظ	wan وان	kub کۆب	toń طۉگ	pem ٮهم	ser صهر	yim يىم	nam نام

• 071. The numerals 9-15 are formed by suffixing the proper cardirnal to nam, eight.

9	10	11	12	13	14	15
namhed	namwan	namkub	namtoń	nampem	namser	namyim

• 072. The numerals 16-64 are formed by prefixing the proper cardirnal to nam, eight.

16	24	32	40	48	56	64
wannam	kubnam	tońnam	pemnam	sernam	yimnam	namnam

• 073. Compounds of 64 can be made by prefixing the proper ordinal to namnam: wannamnam, 128, but the Liwadis seldom need to count that high.
• 074. The ordinals are made by adding the suffix -it to the cardinal number: hedit, first.
• 075. The adverbial numbers expressing how many times are made by adding the suffix -us to the ordinal number: wanus, twice; minamus, eight times.
• 076. Multiplicative numbers expressing how many times as many are formed by adding -ar to the cardinal number: namar, eight times as many.

Em kubar lomder-na dawańa yol es dawańu.

I have three times as many bananas as he has.

Em	kub-ar	lomder-na	dawań-a	yol	es	dawań-u
I	three-MULT	banana\PL-OBJ	have\NPST\IND-1	as	he	have\NPST\IND-3

• 077. Distributive numbers (DSTR) expressing at a time are formed by duplicating the first syllable of the required number.

Su inir wawan sa benep-na serapu.

The men crossed the bridge two at a time.

Su	in-ir	ke~keg	sa	benep-na	serap-u
the	man-PL	DSTR~two	the	bridge-OBJ	cross-PST\IND-3

• 078. Distributive numbers expressing each are formed by adding the determiner yok, each, to the cardinal number.

Emer ige kuḃyok ruzlar-na dekaka.

We split into groups of three each.

Emer	ige	kuḃ.yok	ruzl-ar-na	dekak-a
we	into	three.each	group-PL-OBJ	split\PST\IND-3

Adverbs - Nuker Liḳdar نۆکهر ليخظار

• 079. Adverbs are a class of words that modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a determiner, a noun phrase, a clause, or a sentence. They typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc.
• 080. They have the same form as the adjective, but follow the verb they modify:

su iliz in, the brave man.

Es medab iliz, He acted bravely.

• 081. The comparative of these adverbs is formed in the same way as are adjectives; iliz, bravely; iliziliz, more/most bravely.

Pronouns - Nuhon Liḳdar نۆحۉن لىݢظلر

• 082. Pronouns are a class of words that substitute for a noun or noun phrase. There are seven types of pronouns in Liwadi.
• 083. The personal pronouns are em, I; emer, we; eń, you (sg.); eńer, you (pl.); (in)es, he; (min)es, she; et, it; eser/eter, they.
• 084. The interrogative pronoun is la which stands for the interrogative pronouns who, what and the interrogative adjective which.
• 085. The reflexive pronouns are translated by using the personal pronoun as both subject and object:

Em em-na yesara.

I hurt myself.

Em	em-na	yesar-a
I	I-OBJ	hurt\PST\IND-1

• 086. The intensive pronouns are formed with the noun sazal, self:

Emsazal dakaya.

I myself will go.

Em.sazal	dakay-a
I.self	go\NPST\IND-1

Su minsazal elo sa yamuń dakaya.

The woman herself will go to the store.

Su	min.sizul	elo	sa	yamuń	dakay-a
the	woman.self	to	the	store	go\NPST\IND-3

• 087. The demonstrative pronouns are the same as the demonstrative determiners, wed, this; weder, these; and dad, that; dadar, those, and may take the direct object particle as needed:

Em dadar-na pazada.

I want those.

Em	dad-ar-na	pazad-a
I	this-PL-OBJ	want\NPST\IND-1

• 088. The indefinite pronouns are made from the indefinite determiners: nul nuhon, anyone, anybody, nul gurop, anything; rag nuhon, someone, somebody; rag gurop, something; wa nuhon, no one, nobody; wa gurop, nothing; yok nuhon, everyone, everybody; yok gurop, everything.
• 089. There are no possessive pronouns. The possessor is expressed with a prepositional phrase using ne, of; the vowel of the pronoun is elided:

Wed sa 'ń ʻipay ayadu, dad ne 'm ayadu.

This is your flower, that is mine.

Wed	sa	'ń	ʻipay	ayad-u	dad	ne	'm	ayad-u
this	the	you	flower	be\NPST\IND\-3	that	of	I	be\NPST\IND-3

• 090. There are no relative pronouns. The relative clause is an independent clause that precedes the noun it modifies. Any determiner precedes the relative clause. The relative clause is in italics.

Sa es ya rinap-na renaku ńisil ayadu.

The meat which she cooked is delicious.

Sa	es	ya	rinap-na	renak-u	ńisil	ayad-u
the	she	INDEF	meat-OB	PST\cook\IND-3	delicious	be\NPST\IND-3

Em su es em-na ʻebasu in-na dapaga.

I will kill the man who wounded me.

em	su	es	em-na	ʻebas-u	in-OBJ	dapag-a
I	the	he	I-OBJ	wound\PST\IND-3	man-OB	kill\NPST\IND-1

Sa mines et-na renaku enip idol ayadu.

The pot in which she cooked it is red.

Sa	min-es	et-na	renak-u	enip	idol	ayad-u
the	F-3	3-OBJ	cook\PST\IND-3	pot	red	be\NPST\IND-3

Em tid eter yo sa tal nadayu tiḳgar-na asada.

I see three children who are playing in the sea.

Em	tid	et-er	yo	sa	tal	naday-u	tiḳg-ar-na	asad-a
I	three	3-PL	in	the	sea	play\NPST\IND-3	child-PL-OBJ	see\NPST\IND-1

Prepositions - Tiyon Liḳdar طىيۉن لىݢظلر

• 091. Liwadi uses prepositions, a class of words that express spatial or temporal relations (in, under, towards, before) or mark various semantic roles (of, for): zu sa nipap, at the beach.

The prepositions are listed in a separate dictionary where a fuller description of them can be given.

Conjunctions - Yirup Liḳdar يىرۆٮ لىݢظلر

• 092. A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases or clauses.
• 093. In Liwadi there are three types of conjunctions.
• 094. A coordinate conjunction joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance:

Su 'm insad h' em ʻiṗtar-na he tuṗyar-na dararu.

My brother and I like fruits and vegetables.

su	em	insad	he	em	ʻiṗt-ar-na	he	tuṗy-ar-na	darar-u
the	my	brother	and	I	fruit-PL-OBJ	and	vegetable-PL-OBJ	like\NPST\IND-3

• 095. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join two or more items of equal syntactic importance:

Eń u sepur padadi u eń latadi.

You will either eat your supper or go to bed.

Eń	u	sepur	padad-i	u	eń	latad-i
you	or	supper	eat\NPST\IND-2	or	you	go.to.bed\NPST\IND-2

• 096. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause and a dependent clause. The dependent clause may be placed either before or after the main clause.

Apoń es doked ayadu, es rotep pedadu.

Although she is sick, she ate her breakfast.

Apoń	es	doked	ayad-u	es	rotep	pedad-u
although	she	sick	be\NPST\IND-3	she	morning	eat.a.meal\PST\IND-3

Octal Table

1 ح	2 و	3 ک	4 ط	5 ٮ	6 ص	7 ه	8 ل
hed حهظ	wan وان	kub کۆب	toń طۉگ	pem ٮهم	ser صهر	yim ىيم	nam نام
9 لح	10 لو	11 لک	12 لط	13 لٮ	14 لص	15 له	16 ول
namhed	namwan	namkub	namtoń	nampem	namser	namyim	wannam
17 ولح	18 ولو	19 ولک	20 ولط	21 ولٮ	22 ولص	23 وله	24 کل
wannamhed	wannamwan	wannamkub	wannamtoń	wannampem	wannamser	wannamyim	kubnam
25 کلح	26 کلو	27 کلک	28 کلط	29 کلٮ	30 کلص	31 کله	32 طل
kubnamhed	kubnamwan	kubnamkub	kubnamtoń	kubnampem	kubnamser	kubnamyim	tońnam
33 طلح	34 طلو	35 طلک	36 طلط	37 طلٮ	38 طلص	39 طله	40 ٮل
tońnamhed	tońnamwan	tońnamkub	tońnamtoń	tońnampem	tońnamser	tońnamyim	pemnam
41 ٮلح	42 ٮلو	43 ٮلک	44 ٮلط	45 ٮلٮ	46 ٮلص	47 ٮله	48 صل
pemnamhed	pemnamwan	pemnamkub	pemnamtoń	pemnampem	pemnamser	pemnamyim	sernam
49 صلح	50 صلو	51 صلک	52 صلط	53 صلٮ	54 صلص	55 صله	56 هل
sernamhed	sernamwan	sernamkub	sernamtoń	sernampem	sernamser	sernamyim	yimnam
57 هلح	58 هلو	59 هلک	60 هلط	61 هلٮ	62 هلص	63 هله	64 لل
yimnamhed	yimnamwan	yimnamkub	yimnamtoń	yimnampem	yimnamser	yimnamyim	namnam

Liwadi: Dictionaries