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| This article is an outline of the '''grammar of [[Lingua Franca Nova]]''', a proposed international auxiliary language originally created by C. George Boeree and elaborated by the members of the LFN community. LFN has an analytic grammar and resembles the grammars of languages such as the [[Haitian Creole]], [[Papiamento]], and [[Afrikaans]]. On the other hand, it uses a vocabulary drawn from several modern romance languages - [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[French language|French]], and [[Italian language|Italian]].<ref name="Invented Languages">Harrison, Richard H. (2008) ''Lingua Franca Nova.'' '''Invented Languages, 1,''' pp. 30 –33.</ref><ref>Fisahn, Stefan (2005) ''Plansprache: Lingua Franca Nova.'' '''Contraste''', '''244''', p. 12.</ref>
| | = introduction = |
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| Complete grammars are available in English, French, Esperanto, and LFN.<ref name="LFN grammar">[http://ccgi.esperanto.plus.com/lfn/grammar.pdf LFN Grammar]</ref>
| | = phonology = |
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| ==Word order== | | == consonants == |
| | * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes. |
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| LFN has a strict [[word order]].<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" /> The general word order is:
| | {|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;" |
| | | |+Consonants |
| :''subject noun phrase'' — ''verb phrase'' (— ''object noun phrase'') | | ! |
| ::''Joan core'' — "John runs"
| | !Labial |
| ::''Maria oia Joan'' — "Maria hears John"
| | !colspan=2|Alveolar |
| | | !Palatal |
| A [[noun phrase]] has this order:
| | !Velar |
| | | !Glottal |
| : (''determiners'' —) (''quantifiers'' —) ''noun'' (— ''adjectives'')
| | |- |
| ::''La tre omes grande...'' — "The three large men..."
| | ! Nasal |
| ::''La multe femes peti...'' — "The many small women..."
| | | m ('''m''') |
| | | |colspan=2|n ('''n''') |
| A [[verb phrase]] has this order:
| | | ɲ ('''ny''') |
| | | | |
| : (''tense/mood'' —) (''leading verb'' —) ''verb'' (— ''adverb'')
| | | |
| ::''...ia nesesa come rapida'' — "...needed to eat quickly..."
| | |- |
| ::''...va debe come lente'' — "...will have to eat slowly..."
| | ! Plosive |
| | | | p~b ('''p''') |
| A [[Adpositional phrase|prepositional phrase]] generally follows what it modifies, and has this order:
| | |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''') |
| | | | |
| : ''preposition'' — ''noun phrase''
| | | k~g ('''k''') |
| ::''...en la cosina'' — "...in the kitchen"
| | | ʔ (''' ' ''') |
| ::''...pos medianote'' — "...after midnight"
| | |- |
| | | ! Affricate |
| ==Nouns==
| | | |
| | | | ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''') |
| The roles of [[nouns]] in a sentence are indicated through prepositions and word order. There are no [[Grammatical case|cases]].<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
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| | | | |
| Nouns are commonly preceded by [[determiner]]s. [[Plural]] nouns are formed by appending '''''-s''''' to nouns ending in vowels or '''''-es''''' to nouns ending in consonants. This does not alter the stress:
| | | |
| *''casa > casa'''s''''' — house > houses
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| *''fem > fem'''es''''' — woman > women
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| [[Mass noun]]s include liquids, powders, and substances, such as ''acua'' (water), ''arena'' (sand), and ''lenio'' (wood). They do not normally require determiners or the plural. However, one may add these to indicate specific examples or different types:
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| *''la acua'' — the water (e.g. in the cup)
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| *''lenios'' — woods (e.g. various kinds)
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| [[Grammatical gender|Gender]] is typically not indicated. If necessary, nouns may be followed by '''''mas''''' (male) or '''''fema''''' (female):
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| *''un cavalo '''mas''''' / ''un cavalo '''fema''''' — a stallion / a mare
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| A few terms for family members and traditional roles do show distinctions of gender. For example:
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| *''madre / padre'' — mother / father
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| *''fi'''o''' / fi'''a''''' — son / daughter
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| *''prinse / prins'''esa''''' — prince / princess
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| [[Apposition]] — the use of one noun to modify another — is mostly limited to names and titles:
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| *''san Josef'' — Saint Joseph
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| *''me sore Maria'' — my sister Mary
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| == Determiners ==
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| [[Determiner (linguistics)|Determiners]] in LFN precede the noun they modify. There are two [[Article (grammar)|articles]]: '''''la''''' (the) and '''''un''''' (a), used as in English:<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
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| * '''''la''' om, '''un''' fem, e enfantes'' — the man, a woman, and children
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| Other words function similarly:
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| :{| style="width: 90%"
| |
| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 45%" | '''''tota''''' — all<br> '''''esta''''' — this, these<br> '''''acel''''' — that, those<br> '''''cada''''' — every, each<br> '''''cualce''''' — whatever, whichever <br> '''''alga''''' — some, several, a few <br>'''''no''''' — no, zero || '''''multe''''' — many, much<br> '''''poca''''' — few, little<br> '''''plu''''' — more<br> '''''min''''' — less, fewer<br> '''''otra''''' — other<br> '''''mesma''''' — same<br> '''''tal''''' — such | | ! Continuant |
| |}
| | | |
| | | | s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''') |
| ==Pronouns==
| | | |
| | | | |
| Personal [[pronoun]]s are invariant:<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
| | | h~ɦ ('''h''') |
| :{| style="width: 90%"
| |
| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 45%" | '''''me''''' — I, me <br> '''''tu''''' — you (singular (thou)) <br> '''''el''''' — she, her, he, him <br> '''''lo''''' — it || '''''nos''''' — we, us <br> '''''vos''''' — you (plural) <br> '''''los''''' — they, them | | ! Semivowel |
| | | |
| | |colspan=2| |
| | | j ('''y''') |
| | | w ('''u''') |
| | | |
| |} | | |} |
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| '''''El''''' is used for people and higher animals. Its use can be extended metaphorically to lower animals, robots, the moon, hurricanes, etc. '''''Lo''''' is used for things, simple animals, plants, ideas, etc.
| | The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs. |
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| There are no [[grammatical gender|gender]] distinctions between "he" and "she". If gender is significant, one can use words like '''''la fem, la om, la xica, la xico, la fema, la mas''''' (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy, the female, the male), etc.
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| Unlike in the Romance languages, there is no polite/impolite contrast for the second person: '''''tu''''' is always used for the singular, '''''vos''''' always for the plural.
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| There is an indefinite pronoun '''''on''''', which is used like German "man" or French "on":
| | * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/ |
| * '''''On''' debe segue la regulas'' — "One must follow the rules." | | * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/ |
| | * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/ |
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| The reflexive pronouns are also '''''me, tu, nos,''''' and '''''vos'''''. For the third person, singular and plural, lfn uses '''''se''''':
| | === free variation === |
| * ''Me ia lava '''me''''' — "I washed myself."
| | Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed. |
| * ''El ama '''se''''' — "He loves himself."
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| The [[possessive]] determiners are the same as the reflexive pronouns. They are preceded by '''''la''''' before verbal nouns:
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| * '''''Tu''' gato es ala'' — "Your cat is over there."
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| *''Tu es sempre en '''me''' mente'' — "You are always in my mind."
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| * '''''La me''' desira es fol'' — "My desire is foolish."
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| There are no separate possessive pronouns such as "mine". Instead one uses expressions such as '''''de me''''' and '''''lo de me''''', or includes the noun:
| | === Sound Changes === |
| * ''Esta es '''de me''''' — "This is mine."
| | The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/. |
| * '''''Lo de me''' es plu grande ca '''lo de tu''''' — "Mine is bigger than yours."
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| * '''''Me padre''' es plu grande ca '''tu padre''''' — "My father is bigger than your father."
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| Other pronouns include the following:
| | == vowels == |
| :{| style="width: 90%"
| | {| class="wikitable" |
| |- | | |+Vowels |
| | style="width: 45%" | '''''cadun''''' — everyone, everybody <br> '''''algun''''' — someone, somebody <br> '''''cualcun''''' — whomever, anyone, anybody <br> '''''nun''''' — no one, nobody <br> '''''esta, estas''''' — this, these <br> '''''multe''''' — many, much
| | ! |
| | '''''cada cosa''''' — everything <br> '''''alga cosa''''' — something <br> '''''cualce cosa''''' — whatever, anything <br> '''''no cosa''''' — nothing <br> '''''acel, aceles''''' — that, those <br> '''''poca''''' — few, little | | !'''Front''' |
| | !'''Back''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | !'''Close''' |
| | |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | !'''Mid''' |
| | |{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | !'''Open''' |
| | |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)''' |
| |} | | |} |
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| ==Verbs==
| | '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug'). |
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| There are no [[grammatical conjugation|conjugations]] of [[verb]]s in LFN. The basic form remains the same regardless of person, number, or tense.<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
| | === diphthongs === |
| | Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible. |
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| The [[present tense]] is represented by the basic verb: | | == phonotactics == |
| *''La om '''come''''' — "The man eats", "The man is eating."
| | The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern. |
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| The present tense is also used to indicate habitual actions and states, facts of nature, and as a "historical" tense, such as when relating a story that has been clearly established as occurring in the past:
| | There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms). |
| *''La sol '''leva''' en la este'' — "The sun rises in the east."
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| *''Me '''labora''' a la universia'' — "I work at the university."
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| The [[past tense]] is indicated by the particle '''''ia''''':
| | When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative. |
| *''Maria '''ia''' come'' — "Maria ate."
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| The [[future tense]] is indicated by the particle '''''va''''':
| | === gemination === |
| *''Joan '''va''' come pronto'' — "John will eat soon."
| | Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination. |
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| The particle '''''ta''''' indicates the [[irrealis mood]] and can be used where other languages might use a [[Conditional mood|conditional]] or [[subjunctive]] mood. Its use is optional: | | === syllables === |
| *''Me ia duta ce el '''ta''' vade'' — "I doubted he would go."
| | Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”''). |
| *''Me '''ta''' es felis si la sol '''ta''' brilia'' — "I would be happy if the sun were shining."
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| One combination ― '''''ia ta''''' ― is permitted to express "would have":
| | === syllable chart === |
| *''Me '''ia ta''' es un bon re'' ― "I would have been a good king."
| | {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" |
| | | |+the 136 basic Kala syllables |
| Certain [[adverbs]] and verbal constructions add precision to the tenses:
| | |- |
| * ''Me come '''aora''''' ― "I am eating now."
| | ! |
| *''Me ia come '''ja''''' ― "I ate already", "I have eaten", "I had eaten."
| | ! a |
| * ''Me va come '''a pos''''' ― "I will eat afterwards."
| | ! e |
| * ''Me ia '''fini''' leje la libro'' ― "I (have) finished reading the book."
| | ! i |
| * ''Doman, me va '''comensa''' leje un otra'' ― "Tomorrow, I will begin to read another."
| | ! o |
| | | ! u |
| [[Negation (linguistics)|Negation]] is indicated by putting '''''no''''' before the tense particle or (in the present tense) the verb. Double negatives should be avoided:
| | ! ua |
| *''El '''no''' ia pensa ce algun es asi'' ― "He didn't think anyone was here."
| | ! ue |
| | | ! ya |
| [[Imperative mood|Commands]] are indicated by dropping the subject pronoun. [[Hortative]] sentences include the subject, but are preceded by '''''ta ce''''':
| | ! ye |
| * ''Boli la acua!'' ― "Boil the water!"
| | ! yo |
| * '''''Ta ce''' nos dansa!'' ― "Let's dance!"
| | ! ai |
| | | ! ao |
| '''''Lo''''' and '''''on''''' are used as [[dummy pronoun]]s before verbs that refer to weather or other general situations: | | ! uai |
| * ''Lo va pluve'' ― "It's going to rain."
| | ! yao |
| * ''Lo es tro calda en esta sala'' ― "It is too hot in this room."
| | |- |
| * ''Lo pare ce tu es coreta'' ― "It seems that you are correct."
| | ! p |
| * ''On no ave pexes en esta lago'' ― "There aren't fish in this lake."
| | | align="center"|''(m)pa'' |
| | | | align="center"|''(m)pe'' |
| A verb that is fundamentally [[Transitivity|intransitive]] may be used as a transitive [[Causative|causal verb]] by moving the original subject to the object position, and adding a new subject:
| | | align="center"|''(m)pi'' |
| * ''La acua ia boli'' ― "The water boiled" > ''Me ia boli la acua'' - "I boiled the water."
| | | align="center"|''(m)po'' |
| * ''La porte ia abri'' ― "The door opened" > ''Me ia abri la porte'' ― "I opened the door."
| | | align="center"|''(m)pu'' |
| | | | align="center"|''pua'' |
| Verbs can be made into adjectives: The [[participle|active participle]] is formed by adding '''''-nte''''' to the verb. For example, ''come'' becomes ''come'''nte''''', meaning "eating". This should never be used as a gerund, as it often is in English.
| | | align="center"|''pue'' |
| | | | align="center"|''pya'' |
| One can emphasize the idea that the subject is in the midst of an activity or process ([[Continuous and progressive aspects|the progressive aspect]]) using the active participle. Or one can use expressions such as ''en la media de'':
| | | align="center"|''pye'' |
| *''Nos ia '''es comente''' cuando la tempesta ia comensa'' ― "We were eating when the storm began."
| | | align="center"|''pyo'' |
| *''Nos ia es '''en la media de come''' cuando la tempesta ia comensa'' ― "We were in the middle of eating when the storm began."
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font> |
| | | | align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font> |
| The [[participle|passive participle]] is formed by adding '''''-da''''' to the verb. For example, ''come'' becomes ''come'''da''''', meaning "eaten". This should not be confused with the past tense.
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font> |
| | | | align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font> |
| The passive participle can be used to express the [[grammatical voice|passive voice]]. Or one can usa a generic subject pronoun instead:
| | |- |
| *''Si tu no asconde la torta, '''lo va es comeda''''' ― "If you don't hide the cake, it will be eaten."
| | ! t |
| *''Si tu no asconde la torta, '''algun va come lo''''' ― "If you don't hide the cake, someone will eat it."
| | | align="center"|''(n)ta'' |
| | | | align="center"|''(n)te'' |
| Verbs can be used as nouns without change by adding ''la'' or other determiner. Without a determiner, the word serves as an [[infinitive]] or [[gerund]]:
| | | align="center"|''(n)ti'' |
| *''La samba es '''un''' dansa.'' ― "The samba is a dance."
| | | align="center"|''(n)to'' |
| *''Do es '''la''' dansa?'' ― "Where is the dance?"
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| *''Los gusta dansa.'' ― "They like to dance," "They like dancing."
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | | align="center"|'' '' |
| In LFN, verbs often come in pairs. Some "leading" verbs are like [[modal verbs]] in English. However, the idea of leading verbs goes beyond modals to include "attitudinal" verbs such as '''''finje''''' (pretend) and '''''pare''''' (seem). There is no equivalent to the word "to," and the "following" verb is left in its simplest form:
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| *''Me va '''atenta vola''' doman.'' ― "I will try to fly tomorrow."
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| *''On '''debe brosi''' la dentes a cada dia.'' ― "One should brush one's teeth every day."
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | | align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font> |
| ==Adjectives==
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font> |
| | | | align="center"|'' '' |
| [[Adjective]]s follow the noun they modify, with two exceptions: '''''Bon''''' (good) and '''''mal''''' (bad) may come before the noun, due to their frequent use. Unlike the natural Romance languages, adjectives in LFN do not have gender or plural forms, i.e. they don't "agree" with the nouns they describe.<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | |- |
| The [[comparative]] is made with '''''plu''''' (more) or '''''min''''' (less). "The most" is '''''la plu''''' and "the least" is '''''la min:'''''
| | ! k |
| *''Jan es '''plu''' bon '''ca''' Jo, ma Jil es '''la plu''' bon.'' ― "Jan is better than Jo, but Jill is the best."
| | | align="center"|''(n)ka'' |
| | | | align="center"|''(n)ke'' |
| Equivalence is indicated with '''''tan... como''''':
| | | align="center"|''(n)ki'' |
| *''Marco es '''tan''' grande '''como''' Mona.'' ― "Mark is as big as Mona."
| | | align="center"|''(n)ko'' |
| | | | align="center"|''(n)ku'' |
| Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, ''bela'' means "beautiful", but ''un bela'' means "a beautiful one" or "a beauty." This works with participles, too: ''la studiante'' and ''la studiada'' mean "the student" and "the studied," respectively, from the verb ''studia,'' "study."
| | | align="center"|''kua'' |
| | | | align="center"|''kue'' |
| An adjective can be made into an [[abstract noun]] by adding '''''-ia''''' (-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood). In this way ''bela'' becomes ''bel'''ia''','' meaning beauty. This can also be used with nouns: ''madre'' (mother) becomes ''madr'''ia''''' (motherhood).
| | | align="center"|''kya'' |
| | | | align="center"|''kye'' |
| ==Adverbs==
| | | align="center"|''kyo'' |
| | | | align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font> |
| LFN doesn't have an explicit way of marking [[adverb]]s.<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" /> Instead, any adjective can be used as an adverb by placing it after a verb or at the very beginning of the sentence. ''Un om felis'' for example means "a happy man", whereas ''el dansa felis'' means "he/she dances happily". Adverbs used to modify adjectives ''precede'' the adjective.
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font> |
| | | | align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font> |
| Examples of common adverbs include the following:
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font> |
| :{| style="width: 90%"
| | |- |
| | ! m |
| | | align="center"|''ma'' |
| | | align="center"|''me'' |
| | | align="center"|''mi'' |
| | | align="center"|''mo'' |
| | | align="center"|''mu'' |
| | | align="center"|''mua'' |
| | | align="center"|''mue'' |
| | | align="center"|''mya'' |
| | | align="center"|''mye'' |
| | | align="center"|''myo'' |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font> |
| | |- |
| | ! n |
| | | align="center"|''na'' |
| | | align="center"|''ne'' |
| | | align="center"|''ni'' |
| | | align="center"|''no'' |
| | | align="center"|''nu'' |
| | | align="center"|''nua'' |
| | | align="center"|''nue'' |
| | | align="center"|''nya'' |
| | | align="center"|''nye'' |
| | | align="center"|''nyo'' |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font> |
| | |- |
| | ! s |
| | | align="center"|''sa'' |
| | | align="center"|''se'' |
| | | align="center"|''si'' |
| | | align="center"|''so'' |
| | | align="center"|''su'' |
| | | align="center"|''sua'' |
| | | align="center"|''sue'' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | |- |
| | ! h |
| | | align="center"|''ha'' |
| | | align="center"|''he'' |
| | | align="center"|''hi'' |
| | | align="center"|''ho'' |
| | | align="center"|''hu'' |
| | | align="center"|''hua'' |
| | | align="center"|''hue'' |
| | | align="center"|''hya'' |
| | | align="center"|''hye'' |
| | | align="center"|''hyo'' |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font> |
| | |- |
| | ! ts |
| | | align="center"|''tsa'' |
| | | align="center"|''tse'' |
| | | align="center"|''tsi'' |
| | | align="center"|''tso'' |
| | | align="center"|''tsu'' |
| | | align="center"|''tsua'' |
| | | align="center"|''tsue'' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | |- |
| | ! tl |
| | | align="center"|''tla'' |
| | | align="center"|''tle'' |
| | | align="center"|''tli'' |
| | | align="center"|''tlo'' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font> |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 45%" | '''''aora''''' ― now <br>'''''alora''''' ― then <br>'''''ancora''''' ― still, yet<br>'''''ja''''' ― already <br>'''''sempre''''' ― always <br>'''''nunca''''' ― never <br>'''''an''''' ― even || '''''ier''''' ― yesterday <br>'''''oji''''' ― today <br>'''''doman''''' ― tomorrow <br>'''''asi''''' ― here <br>'''''ala''''' ― there <br>'''''tro''''' ― too<br>'''''apena''''' ― barely, scarcely | | ! l |
| |} | | | align="center"|''la'' |
| | | | align="center"|''le'' |
| ==Prepositions==
| | | align="center"|''li'' |
| | | | align="center"|''lo'' |
| [[Preposition]]s are placed before the noun or noun phrase, and the [[Adpositional phrase|prepositional phrase]] is placed after the noun being modified, or, if used adverbially, after the verb or at the beginning of the sentence.<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" /> There are 22 basic prepositions in LFN:
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| :{| style="width: 90%"
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font> |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| | | align="center"|'' '' |
| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 45%" | '''''a''''' ― at, to <br>'''''ante''''' ― before, in front of <br>'''''asta''''' ― until <br>'''''ca''''' ― than <br>'''''como''''' ― like <br>'''''con''''' ― with <br>'''''contra''''' ― against <br>'''''de''''' ― of, from, since <br>'''''en''''' ― in, into, during <br>'''''entre''''' ― between, among <br>'''''estra''''' ― out of, except || '''''longo''''' ― along <br>'''''par''''' ― by <br>'''''per''''' ― for, in order to <br>'''''pos''''' ― after, behind, according to <br>'''''sin''''' ― without <br>'''''sirca''''' ― around, approximately <br>'''''su''''' ― below, under, beneath <br>'''''supra''''' ― above, over <br>'''''sur''''' ― on, about, concerning <br>'''''tra''''' ― through <br>'''''ultra''''' ― beyond, past, across | | ! - |
| | | align="center"|''a'' |
| | | align="center"|''e'' |
| | | align="center"|''i'' |
| | | align="center"|''o'' |
| | | align="center"|''u'' |
| | | align="center"|''ua'' |
| | | align="center"|''ue'' |
| | | align="center"|''ya'' |
| | | align="center"|''ye'' |
| | | align="center"|''yo'' |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font> |
| | | align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font> |
| |} | | |} |
|
| |
|
| Some prepositions can be used as adverbs by placing '''''a''''' or '''''de''''' before them.
| | <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small> |
| *'''''a su''''' ― down, below, downstairs
| |
| *'''''a pos''''' ― after, afterwards, behind, out back
| |
|
| |
|
| ==Coordinating conjunctions== | | === collating order === |
| | The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script. |
|
| |
|
| There are three [[Grammatical conjunction|coordinating conjunctions]] in LFN and three correlative conjunctions:<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;" |
| :{| style="width: 90%" | | ! Consonants |
| |- | | | '''p''' |
| | style="width: 45%" | '''''e''''' ― and<br> '''''o''''' ― or <br> '''''ma''''' ― but, yet || '''''e ... e ...''''' ― both ... and ...<br>'''''o ... o ...''''' ― either ... or ...<br>'''''no ... (e) no ...''''' ― neither ... nor ... | | | '''t''' |
| | | | | '''k''' |
| | | '''m''' |
| | | '''n''' |
| | | '''s''' |
| | | '''h''' |
| | | '''ts''' |
| | | '''tl''' |
| | | '''l''' |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! Vowels |
| | | '''a''' |
| | | '''e''' |
| | | '''i''' |
| | | '''o''' |
| | | '''u''' |
| | | '''ua''' |
| | | '''ue''' |
| | | '''ya''' |
| | | '''ye''' |
| | | '''yo''' |
| | |-align=center |
| |} | | |} |
|
| |
|
| ==Questions==
| | Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization. |
|
| |
|
| There are a number of [[interrogative word]]s that are used to introduce [[question]]s:<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" /><ref>Christo Moskovsky & Alan Libert (2006) Questions in Natural and Artificial Languages. '''Journal of Universal Language 7''', pp 65-120 http://www.unish.org/upload/word/7-2-03-QuestionsInNat%26ALs2.pdf</ref>
| | == stress == |
| :{| style="width: 90%"
| | [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So; |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 45%" |'''''cual''''' ― what, which <br>'''''ci''''' ― who, whom <br>'''''de ci''''' ― whose, of whom <br>'''''cuando''''' ― when || '''''do''''' ― where <br>'''''como''''' ― how <br> '''''cuanto''''' ― how much, how many <br> '''''perce''''' ― why
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| (Most of these are also used to introduce [[subordinate clause]]s, discussed below.)
| | * '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/ |
| | * '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/ |
| | * '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/ |
| | * '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/ |
|
| |
|
| For example:
| | = orthography = |
| * '''''Cuanto''' on paia per lete asi?'' ― "How much does one pay for milk here?"
| |
| * '''''Cual''' auto tu gusta la plu?'' ― "Which car do you like the best?"
| |
| * '''''Perce''' tu no gusta esta?'' ― "Why don't you like this one?"
| |
| * '''''Cuando''' tu espeta ce el ariva?'' ― "When do you expect him to arrive?"
| |
|
| |
|
| Questions may include one of these words or may be indicated by rising intonation alone. One may also express questions by beginning the sentence with the interrogative particle '''''esce''''' ("is it that... ?") or by adding '''''no''''' (no) or '''''si''''' (yes) to the end of the sentence. In writing, questions always end with a question mark (?):
| | = morphology = |
|
| |
|
| * '''''Como''' on construi un casa per avias?'' ― "How do you make a bird house?"
| | == nouns == |
| * ''Tu vole dansa?'' ― "Do you want to dance?"
| |
| * '''''Esce''' tu parla Deutx?'' ― "Do you speak German?"
| |
| * ''Tu parla Italian, '''no'''?'' ― "You speak Italian, don't you?"
| |
|
| |
|
| ==Clauses== | | === pronouns === |
|
| |
|
| [[Relative clauses]] (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. There are two [[relative pronouns]] which typically introduce relative clauses:<ref name="LFN grammar" />
| | === determiners and demonstratives === |
|
| |
|
| : '''''cual''''' ― which, that
| | == verbs == |
| : '''''ci''''' ― who, whom
| |
|
| |
|
| Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:
| | === passive === |
|
| |
|
| * ''La fem '''ci''' me ama veni de Frans.'' ― "The woman (whom) I love comes from France."
| | === causative === |
| * ''La robot '''cual''' me ia construi no opera.'' ― "The robot (that) I built doesn't work."
| |
| * ''Me no comprende lo '''cual''' tu intende.'' ― "I don't understand what you mean."
| |
|
| |
|
| Relative pronouns may be preceded by prepositions:
| | === inceptive === |
| * ''La cosa '''per cual''' me espera la plu es un bisicle nova.'' ― "The thing I wish for the most is a new bicycle."
| |
| * ''La fem '''de ci''' nos parla labora a la me ofisia.'' ― "The woman of whom we speak works at my office."
| |
|
| |
|
| '''''Cuando''''' and '''''do''''' can also be used to introduce adjective clauses:
| | === infinitive === |
|
| |
|
| * ''Esta es la site '''do''' me vole abita.'' ― "This is the city where I want to live."
| | === copula === |
| * ''Me ia vade ala en la anio '''cuando''' me ia fini la me studias.'' ― "I went there in the year when I finished my studies."
| |
|
| |
|
| [[Dependent clause#Noun_clause|Noun clauses]] function the same way that nouns and noun phrases do in a sentence.<ref name="LFN grammar" /> Two [[subordinating conjunctions]] commonly introduce noun clauses:
| | === stative verbs === |
|
| |
|
| : '''''ce''''' ― that
| | = derivational morphology = |
| : '''''esce''''' ― whether
| |
|
| |
|
| For example:
| | == nominalizers == |
|
| |
|
| * ''Me pensa '''ce''' el es bela.'' ― "I think that she is beautiful."
| | == reduplication == |
| * ''La gato entra la sala '''sin ce''' algun vide el.'' ― "The cat entered the room without anyone seeing it."
| |
| * ''Me demanda a me '''esce''' el ama me.'' ― "I wonder whether she loves me."
| |
|
| |
|
| Relative pronouns and interrogative words can also introduce noun clauses:
| | == verbalizers == |
|
| |
|
| * ''Me no pote recorda '''ci''' me es.'' ― "I can't remember who I am."
| | = syntax = |
| * ''Me no sabe '''cuando''' me va parti.'' ― I don't know when I will leave."
| |
| * ''Me no gusta '''como''' el parla.'' ― "I don't like how he talks."
| |
| *''Me no sabe '''cual''' tu desira per natal'' ― "I don't know what you want for Christmas."
| |
|
| |
|
| [[Dependent clause#Adverbial_clause|Adverbial clauses]] function like adverbs, modifying the verb or the sentence as a whole. Some are introduced by these subordinating conjunctions:<ref name="LFN grammar" />
| | == word order == |
|
| |
|
| : '''''si''''' ― if
| | == case usage == |
| : '''''afin''''' ― so that, in order that
| |
| : '''''car''''' ― because
| |
|
| |
|
| Adverbial clauses usually follow the main clause:
| | == noun phrases == |
|
| |
|
| * ''Me ta pote vade '''si''' me ta ave un auto.'' ― "I would be able to go if I had a car."
| | == numbers == |
| * ''Me no teme la can '''car''' el es multe peti.'' ― "I am not afraid of the dog because it is very small."
| |
| * ''Me core '''afin''' la rinoseros no catura me.'' ― "I'm running so that the rhinos don't catch me."
| |
|
| |
|
| Some of the interrogative words can also be used to introduce adverbial clauses:
| | == comparisons == |
| | |
| * ''La lupos cria '''cuando''' los vide la luna'' ― "The wolves howl when they see the moon."
| |
| * ''Me vole abitua '''do''' la clima es bon'' ― "I want to live where the weather is good."
| |
| * ''Me vive '''como''' me vole vive.'' ― "I live as I want to live."
| |
| | |
| '''''Do''''' and '''''cuando''''' are often preceded by prepositions:
| |
| | |
| :{| style="width: 90%"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 45%" | '''''a do''''' ― to where, whither <br> '''''de do''''' ― from where, whence <br> '''''ante cuando''''' ― before <br> '''''pos cuando''''' ― after || '''''en cuando''''' ― while <br> '''''asta cuando''''' ― until <br> '''''de cuando''''' ― since
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| For example:
| | == prepositions == |
|
| |
|
| * ''El ia pote sci '''ante cuando''' el ia pote pasea.'' ― "He could ski before he could walk."
| | == tense usage == |
| * ''Me gusta escuta a la radio '''en cuando''' me labora.'' ― "I like to listen to the radio while I work."
| |
|
| |
|
| ==Numbers== | | == moods == |
|
| |
|
| Numbers in LFN are as follows:<ref name="LFN grammar" />
| | == aspect == |
| :{| style="width: 90%"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 45%" | 0 ― '''''zero'''''<br>1 ― '''''un'''''<br> 2 ― '''''du'''''<br> 3 ― '''''tre'''''<br> 4 ― '''''cuatro'''''<br> 5 ― '''''sinco''''' || 6 ― '''''ses'''''<br> 7 ― '''''sete'''''<br> 8 ― '''''oto'''''<br> 9 ― '''''nove'''''<br> 10 ― '''''des'''''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| Higher numbers are constructed as follows:
| | == conditionals == |
| :{| style="width: 90%"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 45%" | 11 ― '''''des-un'''''<br> 20 ― '''''dudes'''''<br> 100 ― '''''sento'''''<br> 321 ― '''''tresento-dudes-un'''''|| 1000 ― '''''mil'''''<br> 45 678 ― '''''cuatrodes-sinco mil sessento-setedes-oto'''''<br> 1 000 000 ― '''''milion'''''<br> 1 000 000 000 ― '''''mil milion'''''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| Numbers that express quantity precede the noun; numbers that express order follow the noun:
| | == subordinate clauses == |
| *''la '''tre''' omes,'' "the three men"
| |
| *''la om '''tre''','' "the third man"
| |
|
| |
|
| Fractions are constructed with '''''-i,''''' e.g. '''''dui, tri, cuatri,... desi, senti, mili,''''' etc.
| | == negatives == |
|
| |
|
| Multiples and groups can be referred to with '''''-uple,''''' as in '''''duple''''' ― double, duo, couple, pair.
| | == questions == |
introduction
phonology
consonants
Consonants
|
|
Labial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m (m)
|
n (n)
|
ɲ (ny)
|
|
|
| Plosive
|
p~b (p)
|
t~d (t)
|
|
k~g (k)
|
ʔ ( ' )
|
| Affricate
|
|
ts~t͡ʃ (ts) |
t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
|
|
|
|
| Continuant
|
|
s~ʃ (s) |
l~ɾ (l)
|
|
|
h~ɦ (h)
|
| Semivowel
|
|
|
j (y)
|
w (u)
|
|
The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
- Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
- Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
- Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
free variation
Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
Sound Changes
The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
vowels
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Back
|
| Close
|
i~ɪ (i) |
u~ʊ (u)
|
| Mid
|
e~ɛ (e) |
o~o: (o)
|
| Open
|
a~ɑ (a)
|
Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
diphthongs
Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.
phonotactics
The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.
gemination
Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
syllables
Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).
syllable chart
the 136 basic Kala syllables
|
|
a
|
e
|
i
|
o
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
ya
|
ye
|
yo
|
ai
|
ao
|
uai
|
yao
|
| p
|
(m)pa
|
(m)pe
|
(m)pi
|
(m)po
|
(m)pu
|
pua
|
pue
|
pya
|
pye
|
pyo
|
pai
|
pao
|
puai
|
pyao
|
| t
|
(n)ta
|
(n)te
|
(n)ti
|
(n)to
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tai
|
tao
|
|
|
| k
|
(n)ka
|
(n)ke
|
(n)ki
|
(n)ko
|
(n)ku
|
kua
|
kue
|
kya
|
kye
|
kyo
|
kai
|
kao
|
kuai
|
kyao
|
| m
|
ma
|
me
|
mi
|
mo
|
mu
|
mua
|
mue
|
mya
|
mye
|
myo
|
mai
|
mao
|
muai
|
myao
|
| n
|
na
|
ne
|
ni
|
no
|
nu
|
nua
|
nue
|
nya
|
nye
|
nyo
|
nai
|
nao
|
nuai
|
nyao
|
| s
|
sa
|
se
|
si
|
so
|
su
|
sua
|
sue
|
|
|
|
sai
|
sao
|
suai
|
|
| h
|
ha
|
he
|
hi
|
ho
|
hu
|
hua
|
hue
|
hya
|
hye
|
hyo
|
hai
|
hao
|
huai
|
hyao
|
| ts
|
tsa
|
tse
|
tsi
|
tso
|
tsu
|
tsua
|
tsue
|
|
|
|
tsai
|
tsao
|
tsuai
|
|
| tl
|
tla
|
tle
|
tli
|
tlo
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tlai
|
tlao
|
|
|
| l
|
la
|
le
|
li
|
lo
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
lai
|
lao
|
|
|
| -
|
a
|
e
|
i
|
o
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
ya
|
ye
|
yo
|
ai
|
ao
|
uai
|
yao
|
Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.
collating order
The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.
| Consonants
|
p
|
t
|
k
|
m
|
n
|
s
|
h
|
ts
|
tl
|
l
|
| Vowels
|
a
|
e
|
i
|
o
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
ya
|
ye
|
yo
|
Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.
stress
Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
- masa - /ˈmaːsa/ → masako - /maːˈsako/
- tliyama - /tɬiːˈjama/ → tliyamalo - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
- kam - /kaːm/ → kamyo - /ˈkaːmʲo/
- empahapak - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → empahapayek - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
orthography
morphology
nouns
pronouns
determiners and demonstratives
verbs
passive
causative
inceptive
infinitive
copula
stative verbs
derivational morphology
nominalizers
reduplication
verbalizers
syntax
word order
case usage
noun phrases
numbers
comparisons
prepositions
tense usage
moods
aspect
conditionals
subordinate clauses
negatives
questions
