Latest revision as of 08:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

Consonants
	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m (m)	n (n)		ɲ (ny)
Plosive	p~b (p)	t~d (t)			k~g (k)	ʔ ( ' )
Affricate		ts~t͡ʃ (ts)	t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant		s~ʃ (s)	l~ɾ (l)			h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel				j (y)	w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
	Front	Back
Close	i~ɪ (i)	u~ʊ (u)
Mid	e~ɛ (e)	o~o: (o)
Open	a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao
p	(m)pa	(m)pe	(m)pi	(m)po	(m)pu	pua	pue	pya	pye	pyo	pai	pao	puai	pyao
t	(n)ta	(n)te	(n)ti	(n)to							tai	tao
k	(n)ka	(n)ke	(n)ki	(n)ko	(n)ku	kua	kue	kya	kye	kyo	kai	kao	kuai	kyao
m	ma	me	mi	mo	mu	mua	mue	mya	mye	myo	mai	mao	muai	myao
n	na	ne	ni	no	nu	nua	nue	nya	nye	nyo	nai	nao	nuai	nyao
s	sa	se	si	so	su	sua	sue				sai	sao	suai
h	ha	he	hi	ho	hu	hua	hue	hya	hye	hyo	hai	hao	huai	hyao
ts	tsa	tse	tsi	tso	tsu	tsua	tsue				tsai	tsao	tsuai
tl	tla	tle	tli	tlo							tlai	tlao
l	la	le	li	lo							lai	lao
-	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants	p	t	k	m	n	s	h	ts	tl	l
Vowels	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= Introduction =
+= introduction =
-= Phonology =
+= phonology =
-== Consonants ==
+== consonants ==
 * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
@@ Line 55: / Line 56: @@
 * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
 * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
-=== Free variation ===
+=== free variation ===
 Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
 === Sound Changes ===
 The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
-== Vowels ==
+== vowels ==
 {| class="wikitable"
 |+Vowels
@@ Line 78: / Line 82: @@
 '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
-=== Diphthongs ===
+=== diphthongs ===
 Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
-== Phonotactics ==
+== phonotactics ==
 The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
@@ Line 88: / Line 92: @@
 When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
-=== Syllables ===
+=== gemination ===
+Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
+=== syllables ===
 Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
-=== Syllable Chart ===
+=== syllable chart ===
 {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
 |+the 136 basic Kala syllables
@@ Line 290: / Line 297: @@
 <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>
-=== Collating Order ===
+=== collating order ===
 The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
@@ Line 322: / Line 329: @@
 Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
-== Stress ==
+== stress ==
 [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
@@ Line 330: / Line 337: @@
 * '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
-= Morphology =
+= orthography =
-== Verbs ==
+= morphology =
-== Nouns ==
+== nouns ==
-== Number ==
+=== pronouns ===
-In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence ''"there are three dogs"'' would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' ''"dog three exist"'' keeps the word mita "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant. The collective plural is marked by '''tli-''', derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''"group; collection; gathering"''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL). There are also markers for paucal (''a few of something''), distributive (''each of a countable group''), or inclusive, and an indefinite large number (''many, much'').
+=== determiners and demonstratives ===
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
+== verbs ==
-!
-! ''Kala''
-! ''gloss''
-! ''English''
-|-align=center
-! Singular [SG]
-| '''mita'''
-| <small>dog</small>
-| ''a/the dog''
-|-align=center
-! Plural [PL]
-| '''mita-m'''
-| <small>dog-PL</small>
-| ''(the) dogs''
-|-align=center
-! Paucal [PAU]
-| '''mita-mi'''
-| <small>dog-PAU</small>
-| ''(a) few dogs''
-|-align=center
-! Collective [COL]
-| '''tli-mita'''
-| <small>COL-dog</small>
-| ''(a) dog pack''
-|-align=center
-! Distributive [DIS]
-| '''mita-li''' [or '''-kua''']
-| <small>dog-DIS/INCL</small>
-| ''each/every dog''
-|-align=center
-! Indefinite Mass [IM]
-| '''mita-mpa'''
-| <small>dog-IM</small>
-| ''many dogs''
-|}
-These endings can sometimes be combined to add nuance to the meaning, such as; '''tlimitam''' - <small>COL-dog-PL</small> - ''dog packs / packs of dogs''; '''imitalin malo''' - <small>PROX-dog-DIS-ACC be.brown</small> – ''each of these dogs is brown''
+=== passive ===
-When the final syllable of a word contains a labial consonant, ‘'''m'''’, ‘'''mp'''’, and ‘'''p'''’ the plural marking changes to '''-lo'''. The '''–lo''' ending is also used when the word begins with a vowel, and when the '''–m''' ending conflicts phonotactically with a given case suffix. An example of this would be; '''yama''' - <small>mountain</small> - ''a mountain'' → '''yamalo''' - <small>mountain-PL</small> – ''mountains'' → '''tliyama''' - <small>COL-mountain</small> - ''a mountain range / range of mountains'' → '''tliyamalo''' - <small>COL-mountain-PL</small> - ''mountain ranges / ranges of mountains''.
+=== causative ===
-=== Reduplication ===
+=== inceptive ===
-Nominal reduplication in Kala indicates a plurality and that the items are scattered about in a disorderly manner. It can also indicate uncountable version of a countable noun. Occasionally, it reflects a juvenile or informal register; in this respect, it can be compared to the English diminutive ending "-y" or "-ie" (kitty, “doggie", etc.) Verb reduplication is also common in '''Kala''' as it marks adverbs. Often, this adverb is an informal and/or temporary character of the action. It may also indicate a nominal form of the verb.
+=== infinitive ===
-* '''kya o’unkonke''' - <small>IMP be.loud-NEG</small> - ''Don’t speak loudly!''
+=== copula ===
-The morphological process of reduplication is irregular in Kala and is based primarily on the initial syllable of the word. The nasals ('''N'''), plosives ('''P'''), affricates ('''A'''), continuants ('''C'''), and semivowels and vowels ('''S''') each undergo various changes during reduplication.
+=== stative verbs ===
-* N → N/(y/u)
+= derivational morphology =
-::* '''muku''' - ''knife'' → '''mumuku''' – ''knives scattered around''
-::* '''muela''' - ''raspberry'' → '''memuela''' – ''raspberries scattered around'' / ''a bunch of raspberries''
-::* '''nyahi''' - ''snow'' → '''nanyahi''' – ''snow all around''
-* P → nP/(y/u) or nP → P/(y/u)
-::* '''pana''' - ''rain'' → '''pampana''' – ''rain all around'' (“It’s raining all over.”)
-::* '''ntasi''' – ''excitement'' → '''ntatasi''' – ''chaotic fits''
-::* '''kano''' – ''dear; darling'' → '''kankano''' – ''“sweetie; lovey”''
-::* '''kyo’a''' – ''be quiet'' → '''konko’a''' – ''quietly''
-* A → C/(y/u)
-::* '''tloso''' – ''annoy; bother'' → '''tloloso''' – ''bothersome''
-::* '''tsima''' – ''hour'' → '''tsisima''' – ''hourly; regularly''
-::* '''tsuama''' – ''sandwich'' → '''tsasuama''' – ''sandwiches scattered about'' / ''a sandwich tray''
-* C → ~/(y/u) [mostly '''s''' → '''ts''' and '''h''' → '''k''']
-::* '''sama''' - ''sun'' → '''satsama''' – ''sunny; sunshine all around''
-::* '''suku''' - ''shop'' → '''sutsuku''' – ''marketplace; bazaar''
-::* '''hama''' – ''protect; defend'' → '''hakama''' – ''protective''
-* S → '''‘u''' or '''~'''
-::* '''ima''' – ''now; yet'' → '''i’uma''' – ''immediately'' [sounds like /ˈjuːma/]
-::* '''ampi''' – ''mucus; snot; snivel'' → '''a'umpi''' – ''a runny nose; snively''
-== Case ==
+== nominalizers ==
-Case is marked with suffixes. The regular forms of the case markers are given in the list below. Case is marked on noun phrases using null marking for agents, and '''-n''' for patients. The clitic '''-n''' can appear on multiple noun phrases in a single sentence at once, such as the direct object, indirect object, and adverbial nouns.
+== reduplication ==
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
+== verbalizers ==
-! Case
-! Suffix
-! Example
-|-align=center
-| Nominative<br>[NOM]
-| '''-Ø'''
-| '''yona''' (the/a) book
-|-align=center
-| Accusative<br>[ACC]
-| '''-n'''
-| '''yonan''' (the/a) book [''dir. object/patient'']
-|-align=center
-| Genitive<br>[GEN]
-| '''-yo'''
-| '''yonayo''' of, belonging to (the/a) book
-|-align=center
-| Dative<br>[DAT]
-| '''-la'''
-| '''yonala''' for, to, at (the/a) book [''indir. object/patient'']
-|-align=center
-| Locative<br>[LOC]
-| '''-hue'''
-| '''yonahue''' in, on, at (the/a) book
-|-align=center
-| Ablative<br>[ABL]
-| '''-nte / -uai'''
-| '''yonante''' from, of (the/a) book
-|-align=center
-| Comitative<br>[COM]
-| '''-mua'''
-| '''yonamua''' with, by, via, using (the/a) book
-|-align=center
-| Abessive<br>[ABE]
-| '''-mue'''
-| '''yonamue''' without (the/a) book
-|-align=center
-| Terminative<br>[TERM]
-| '''-mpe'''
-| '''yonampe''' up to, just, only (the/a) book
-|}
-The nominative [NOM] is not marked [-Ø] and is in the absolutive form. It indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer. The accusative is marked with the clitic '''-n''' (from '''no''' - ''thing; object'') and indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as '''''Oblique''''' [OBL] occasionally), instrument, or experiencer. The genitive '''-yo''' (from '''yoha''' - ''have; possess'') indicates inalienable association or possession, whereas the particle '''te''' (''of; from'')indicates alienable association or possession and is roughly equivalent to the ablative case. The dative/(al)lative '''-la''' (from '''yala''' - ''go; walk'') indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object. The locative '''-hue''' indicates location or circumstance, and can be used to indicate the durative for stative verb constructions. The ablative '''-nte''' (from '''te''' - ''of; from'') / '''-uai''' (from '''uaye''' - ''from out of/away'') indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location. The comitative/instrumental/inclusive/coordinative '''-mua''' (from '''mua''' - ''with; (be) together'') indicates instrument, or in company of something. The abessive '''-mue''' indicates the lack or absence of something, it is roughly analogous to the English suffix ''-less''. The terminative/limitative '''-mpe''' (from '''amye''' - ''be alone; final'') indicates the extent, finality, or limit of a thing.
-=== Postpositional Verbs ===
-In addition to the case system, there are several pospositional verbs. These are used interchangeably as pospositions and/or serial verbs.
-* ua'e - above; over / on [LOC]
-* tahe - below; beneath; under [LOC]
-* nahe - inside; interior; during; within [LOC]
-* nyaue - outside of; exterior to [LOC]
-* ka'e - to; towards; at [dative; directional DAT]
-* uaye - from [out/away] [LOC]
-* ma'e - before; in front (of) [LOC]
-* pue - after; back; behind; rear; beyond [LOC]
-* ya'e - near; close to [LOC]
-* pahe - against; touching [LOC]
-* mahe - between; among [intrative INTR]
-* hue / -hue - at; to; in [locative LOC]
-* tsa'e - across; through
-* tsue - around; approximately
-* tla'e - around; encircling; surrounding [LOC]
-* sahe - across; opposite; other side [LOC]
-* pa'e - apart from; other than; except for
-* nka'e - in spite of; regardless of
-* tsahe - for [in exchange for]
-* tsaue - so long as; provided that
-* tlaye - according to; based on
-* te - of [belonging to; = GEN]; about
-* mua - with [comitative; instrumental COM]
-* uahe - instead of; rather than
-* kue - like; similar to
-* mue - without [abessive ABE]
-* nya / nya'e - for [BEN]; purpose of; in order
-* nyahe - by means of; per; via
-* yahe - of [containing]
-* maye - before [TEMP]
-* kaye - until; up to; as far as [TEMP]
-* naye - during; while [TEMP]
-* maue - as soon as; when [TEMP]
-* tsaye - during; start to end [TEMP]
-* paye - after [TEMP]
-* taye - since; from the end [TEMP]
-== Gender ==
+= syntax =
-Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
+== word order ==
-* <b>kuma</b> - <small>bear</small> - <i>a bear</i> → <b>kumana</b> - <small>bear-FEM</small> - <i>sow</i> → <b>kumata</b> - <small>bear-MASC</small> - <i>boar</i>
+== case usage ==
-* <b>masa</b> - <small>deer</small> - <i>a deer</i> → <b>masana</b> - <small>deer-FEM</small> - <i>doe</i> → <b>masata</b> - <small>deer-MASC</small> - <i>stag</i>
-* <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i> → <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i> → <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>
-== Pronouns and Determiners ==
+== noun phrases ==
-'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
+== numbers ==
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-Personal pronouns:
-* '''na''' - 1st person
+== comparisons ==
-* '''ta''' - 2nd person
-* '''ha''' - 3rd person
-* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
-{{col-break}}
-Modifiers:
-* '''-m''' - plural
+== prepositions ==
-* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
-* '''e-''' - patient
-* '''-i''' - reflexive
-* '''-yo''' - possessive
-{{col-break}}
-Other pronouns include:
-* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
+== tense usage ==
-* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
-* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
-* '''nokua''' - everything
-* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
-* '''nok''' - nothing
-{{col-end}}
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
+== moods ==
-|+ nkalo
-|-
-!
-! Agent
-! Patient
-! Reflexive
-! Possessive
-! Reciprocal
-|-
-! 1sg
-| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
-|-
-! 2sg
-| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
-|-
-! 3sg
-| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
-|-
-! 4sg
-| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
-|-
-! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
-| '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
-|-
-! 2pl
-| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
-|-
-! 3pl
-| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
-|-
-! 4pl
-| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
-|}
-=== Pronominal constructions ===
+== aspect ==
-The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-.
+== conditionals ==
-{{col-begin}}
+== subordinate clauses ==
-{{col-break}}
-* '''neha anya'''
-: <small>1s-P.3s see</small>
-: ''I see her.''
-* '''kameta motoyek'''
-: <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small>
-: ''They didn’t remember you.''
-{{col-break}}
-* '''tametla yohauek'''
-: <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small>
-: ''You (all) don’t want to have it.''
-* '''nya tena tapya ka'''
-: <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small>
-: ''Why are you following me?''
-{{col-end}}
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
-! A/P
-! ''1sg''
-! ''2sg''
-! ''3sg''
-! ''4sg''
-! ''1pl''
-! ''1pl.EXCL''
-! ''2pl''
-! ''3pl''
-! ''4pl''
-|-align=center
-! ''1sg''
-| '''-'''
-| '''neta'''
-| '''neha'''
-| '''netla'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''netam'''
-| '''nekam'''
-| '''netlam'''
-|-align=center
-! ''2sg''
-| '''tena'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''teha'''
-| '''tetla'''
-| '''tenam'''
-| '''tena'am'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''tekam'''
-| '''tetlam'''
-|-align=center
-! ''3sg''
-| '''hena'''
-| '''heta'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''hetla'''
-| '''henam'''
-| '''hena'am'''
-| '''hetam'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''hetlam'''
-|-align=center
-! ''4sg''
-| '''tlena'''
-| '''tleta'''
-| '''tleha'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''tlenam'''
-| '''tlena'am'''
-| '''tletam'''
-| '''tlekam'''
-| '''-'''
-|-align=center
-! ''1pl''
-| '''-'''
-| '''nameta'''
-| '''nameha'''
-| '''nametla'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''nametam'''
-| '''namekam'''
-| '''nametlam'''
-|-align=center
-! ''1pl.EXCL''
-| '''-'''
-| '''na'ameta'''
-| '''na'ameha'''
-| '''na'ametla'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''na'ametam'''
-| '''na'amekam'''
-| '''na'ametlam'''
-|-align=center
-! ''2pl''
-| '''tamena'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''tameha'''
-| '''tametla'''
-| '''tamenam'''
-| '''tamena'am'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''tamekam'''
-| '''tametlam'''
-|-align=center
-! ''3pl''
-| '''kamena'''
-| '''kameta'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''kametla'''
-| '''kamenam'''
-| '''kamena'am'''
-| '''kametam'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''kametlam'''
-|-align=center
-! ''4pl''
-| '''tlamena'''
-| '''tlameta'''
-| '''tlameha'''
-| '''-'''
-| '''tlamenam'''
-| '''tlamena'am'''
-| '''tlametam'''
-| '''tlamekam'''
-| '''-'''
-|}
-=== Reflexives and Reciprocals ===
-Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”.
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-* '''na'i sepaye'''
-: <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small>
-: ''I hurt myself.''
-* '''ha'i tlela'''
-: <small>3s.REFL bathe</small>
-: ''She bathes herself.''
-{{col-break}}
-* '''kanku ontan nayo itsa'''
-: <small>3pl.RECP parent-ACC 1s.GEN love</small>
-: ''My parents love each other.''
-* '''na'anku amyapak'''
-: <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small>
-: ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.''
-{{col-end}}
-In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-* '''tanakoli matakiye'''
-: <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
-: ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.''
-{{col-break}}
-* '''kanku tanakolin matakiye'''
-: <small>3pl.RECP fight-AG-each-ACC kill-REFL-PST</small>
-: ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].''
-{{col-end}}
-=== Determiners & Demostratives ===
-The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-* '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
-* '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
-* '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
-Examples:
-* '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs''
-* '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
-* '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
-{{col-break}}
-Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
-* '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
-* '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
-* '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
-* '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
-* '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
-* '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
-* '''maha''' - more; plus
-* '''ohi''' - less; fewer
-{{col-end}}
-=== Correlatives ===
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
-|+ correlatives
-|-
-!
-! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
-! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
-! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
-! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
-! Negative<br>'''-k'''
-! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
-|-
-! mo<br>''(place)''
-| '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
-|-
-! ko<br>''(person)''
-| '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
-|-
-! uku<br>''(amount)''
-| '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
-|-
-! ama<br>''(time)''
-| '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
-|-
-! so<br>''(kind, type)''
-| '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
-|-
-! no<br>''(thing)''
-| '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
-|-
-! to<br>''(manner, way)''
-| '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
-|}
-= Syntax =
-== Basic Word Order ==
-The default word order in '''Kala''' is SOV, although case marking allows some flexibility.
-* '''mita tlakan yatsiye'''
-: dog man-ACC bite-PST
-: ''The dog bit the man.''
-= Derivation =
-== Gemination ==
-Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
-= Sample =
+== negatives ==
-= Lexicon =
+== questions ==

User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 08:37, 24 January 2022

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