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| = Introduction = | | = introduction = |
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| '''Kala''' is a personal artistic language, or constructed language (''conlang''). It is the culmination of my life-long appreciation and fascination with language and linguistics. This fascination began in my youth, c. 1988 when I received a book about ciphers and codes. I have studied multiple natural languages since that time, including several European languages, Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese (Mandarin), to name only a few. I have focused much of my interest in the subfield of writing systems, which will likely be apparent to anyone familiar with '''Kala''' and its many varied writing systems.
| | = phonology = |
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| '''Kala''' draws on ''natlangs'' (natural language), other ''conlangs'', and of course imagination. '''Kala''' was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. '''Kala'''’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed considerably based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of '''Kala''' lexemes are derived from or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth) and '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
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| == Characteristics ==
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| '''Kala''' is a mostly agglutinative language that makes extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, it can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed, and a single word can sometimes constitute an entire sentence. The words of '''Kala''' can be divided into two basic functional classes: verbs and nouns as content words, and particles and others as functional. Adjectives do not exist, instead, stative verbs explain the state of the subject, i.e. ''“to be red”''. The few adverbs that exist fall into the class of particles or are derived from verbs. The most important element of '''Kala''' lexemes to keep in mind is that they may function as a verb, noun, adjective, or an adverb based on where they fall in the phrase, and any various endings that may be affixed. '''Kala''' has two basic parts of speech. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb); more so in conversation than in written '''Kala''', these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
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| * '''muya ka''' - /muːja gaː/ - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
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| * '''inanko''' - /iːna/ - <small>eat-CONT</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
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| * '''tamatse''' - /tamaːˌt͡ʃɛ/ - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
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| * '''ueha ka''' - /weːɦa kaː/ - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
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| * '''nyasak''' - /ɲaːʃak/ - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
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| Notice that none of the above contains any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable. There can be considerable divergence from what is grammatical, and what is acceptably idiomatic. The spectrum of formality and grammatical to idiomatic can be seen in the example below:
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| * '''netla muyaye''' – <small>1sg-P.4sg do-PST</small> – ''I did it.'' > [grammatical, formal]
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| * '''etla muyaye''' – <small>P.4sg do-PST</small> – ''(I) did it. >> It was done.'' > [grammatical, formal, passive]
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| * '''na muyaye''' – <small>1sg do-PST</small> – ''I did (it).'' > [grammatical, informal]
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| * '''muyaye''' – <small>do-PST</small> – ''(I) did (it).'' > [semi-grammatical, idiomatic]
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| * '''muyye''' – /muːɟɛ/ – <small>do-PST</small> – ''(I) did (it).'' > [ungrammatical, idiomatic]
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| === Function Words ===
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| Function words are called '''mayatla''' (“water words”; flowing speech). In this case, the words are "empty" in that they don't do anything by themselves. They serve important grammatical functions by making clear relationships between words, logical connections, or modifications of meaning. Function words are the "grammar words" of Kala. There are subcategories of function words that include: prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, pragmatics, and particles.
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| === Content Words ===
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| Content words are called '''konotla''' (“stone words”; still/solid speech) Contrary to function words, content words refer to real objects in the real world, whether solid and palpable, or observable in some other way. These words refer to objects, actions, concepts, and emotions, which exist in some real way as more than just grammatical tools. Subcategories of content words are: nouns, pronouns, verbs (active and stative), adverbials, number words, and onomatopoeia. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best and most common example would be '''ina''' /iːˈna/ ''"food; to eat"''. '''Kala''' is a context-oriented language. The English glosses are meant to give an idea of what the core meaning of the '''Kala''' word actually is, but which do not imply that the '''Kala''' word actually covers all the main senses of these English words. Conversely, many words with a meaning much narrower than their English gloss are not precisely specified.
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| == Borrowing ==
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| As can be seen [[Kala/etymology|here]], '''Kala''' borrows from many varied languages, including but not limited to: Arabic, Mandarin, Japanese, Korean, Spanish, Turkish, and several others. These borrowings are most often based on aesthetics and function of the word. When borrowing, often changes made to the word include dropping of one or more syllables, vowel changes, and occasionally metathesis. These changes frequently leave the word unrecognizable from its original form. However, with each borrowing, an attempt has been made to retain as much original phonological and semantic meaning as possible. Of the numerous examples of borrowing, here is a breakdown of a few that are commonly used;
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| ::* '''niha''' – ''good; nice; cool; sweet; enjoyable'' (from Arabic [[wiktionary:منيح|'''منيح''']] /mnīḥ/, meaning “fine; good”). So, the /m/ was dropped and an /a/ was added, also the /ḥ/ becomes /ɦ/. These changes align the word with the CVCV structure that the majority of '''Kala''' lexemes adhere to, as well as the phonological and phonotactical rules. This has been further reduced to a derivational suffix, -'''ni''' denoting a quality of goodness.
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| ::* '''yohua''' – ''night(time); darkness'' (from Classical Nahuatl [[wiktionary:yohualli|'''yohualli''']] /jo(w)alli/, meaning “night; nighttime; darkness”). The absolutive suffix –'''''lli''''' was dropped, and the Spanish spelling used to inform pronunciation, making it /joːhʷa/. This word has been used in portmanteau to create new words such as '''huatso''' “''midnight''”.
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| ::* '''tsoya''' – ''center; middle; mid-; half'' (from Mandarin [[wiktionary:中#Definitions|'''中''']] / ʈ͡ʂʊŋ/, meaning “middle; center”). So, the coda / ŋ/ was dropped and /ja/ was added, also the /ʈ͡ʂ/ becomes /ts~t͡ʃ/. This has been further reduced to a derivational suffix, -'''tso''' denoting half, or the middle of something. This word has been used in portmanteau to create new words such as '''huatso''' “''midnight''” and '''yotso''' “''midday; noon''”.
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| This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| :* '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[wiktionary:pato#Noun_9|''pato'']]
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| :* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
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| :* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
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| :* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| :* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[wiktionary:橙#Chinese|''chéng'']]
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| :* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]
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| :* '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| So, some phrases can contain words from multiple natlangs:
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| * '''ta (ke) inun uasiye ka'''
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| : <small>2sg (O) drink-ACC take-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did you take the drink?''
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| * '''ta''' - Arabic [[wiktionary:أنت|''ʾanta'']]; '''ke''' - Chinese [[wiktionary:個#Definitions|''gè'']]; '''inu''' - Hawaiian [[wiktionary:inu#Hawaiian|''inu'']]; '''uasi''' - Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]; '''ka''' - Japanese [[wiktionary:か#Particle|''か'']]
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| =Phonology=
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| == Consonants ==
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| | == consonants == |
| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes. | | * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes. |
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/ | | * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/ |
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| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
| | === free variation === |
| | | Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed. |
| === Allophony ===
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| | === Sound Changes === |
| The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/. | | The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/. |
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| == Vowels == | | == vowels == |
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| {| class="wikitable" | | {| class="wikitable" |
| |+Vowels | | |+Vowels |
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| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Close''' | | !'''Close''' |
| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)''' | | |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Mid''' | | !'''Mid''' |
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| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Open''' | | !'''Open''' |
| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)''' | | |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)''' |
| |} | | |} |
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| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug'). | | '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug'). |
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| === Diphthongs === | | === diphthongs === |
| | | Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible. |
| Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible. | |
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| == Phonotactics ==
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| | == phonotactics == |
| The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern. | | The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern. |
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| When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative. | | When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative. |
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| === Gemination === | | === gemination === |
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| Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination. | | Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination. |
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| === Syllables === | | === syllables === |
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| Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”''). | | Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”''). |
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| === Syllable Chart === | | === syllable chart === |
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| {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" | | {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" |
| |+the 136 basic Kala syllables | | |+the 136 basic Kala syllables |
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| <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small> | | <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small> |
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| === Collating Order === | | === collating order === |
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| The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script. | | The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script. |
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| Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization. | | Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization. |
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| == Stress == | | == stress == |
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| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So; | | [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So; |
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| * '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/ | | * '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/ |
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| = Nominal Morphology = | | = orthography = |
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| The morphology of '''Kala''' nouns can be complex enough to include number, gender, size, case, quality, etc. However, it should be noted that a few of these are also non-obligatory. That is, if the meaning or intended meaning can be deduced from context, certain nominal modifiers may be omitted. Due to the semantic range of '''Kala''' words, the declension of nouns is often used to convey both the lexical role, but also the semantic use, and grammatical importance of the word.
| | = morphology = |
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| == Nouns == | | == nouns == |
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| '''Kala''' nominals (which includes full nouns, pronouns, and determiners) inflect for number and several cases. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not always marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
| | === pronouns === |
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| === Number === | | === determiners and demonstratives === |
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| In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence ''"there are three dogs"'' would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' ''"dog three exist"'' keeps the word mita "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant. The collective plural is marked by '''tli-''', derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''"group; collection; gathering"''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL). There are also markers for paucal (''a few of something''), distributive (''each of a countable group''), or inclusive, and an indefinite large number (''many, much'').
| | == verbs == |
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
| | === passive === |
| !
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| ! ''Kala''
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| ! ''gloss''
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| ! ''English''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Singular [SG]
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| | '''mita'''
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| | <small>dog</small>
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| | ''a/the dog''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Plural [PL]
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| | '''mita-m'''
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| | <small>dog-PL</small>
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| | ''(the) dogs''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Paucal [PAU]
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| | '''mita-mi'''
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| | <small>dog-PAU</small>
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| | ''(a) few dogs''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Collective [COL]
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| | '''tli-mita'''
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| | <small>COL-dog</small>
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| | ''(a) dog pack''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Distributive [DIS]
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| | '''mita-li''' [or '''-kua''']
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| | <small>dog-DIS/INCL</small>
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| | ''each/every dog''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Indefinite Mass [IM]
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| | '''mita-mpa'''
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| | <small>dog-IM</small>
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| | ''many dogs''
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| |}
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| These endings can sometimes be combined to add nuance to the meaning, such as; '''tlimitam''' - <small>COL-dog-PL</small> - ''dog packs / packs of dogs''; '''imitalin malo''' - <small>PROX-dog-DIS-ACC be.brown</small> – ''each of these dogs is brown''
| | === causative === |
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| When the final syllable of a word contains a labial consonant, ‘'''m'''’, ‘'''mp'''’, and ‘'''p'''’ the plural marking changes to '''-lo'''. The '''–lo''' ending is also used when the word begins with a vowel, and when the '''–m''' ending conflicts phonotactically with a given case suffix. An example of this would be; '''yama''' - <small>mountain</small> - ''a mountain'' → '''yamalo''' - <small>mountain-PL</small> – ''mountains'' → '''tliyama''' - <small>COL-mountain</small> - ''a mountain range / range of mountains'' → '''tliyamalo''' - <small>COL-mountain-PL</small> - ''mountain ranges / ranges of mountains''.
| | === inceptive === |
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| ==== Reduplication ==== | | === infinitive === |
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| Nominal reduplication in Kala indicates a plurality and that the items are scattered about in a disorderly manner. It can also indicate uncountable version of a countable noun. Occasionally, it reflects a juvenile or informal register; in this respect, it can be compared to the English diminutive ending "-y" or "-ie" (kitty, “doggie", etc.) Verb reduplication is also common in '''Kala''' as it marks adverbs. Often, this adverb is an informal and/or temporary character of the action. It may also indicate a nominal form of the verb.
| | === copula === |
|
| |
|
| * '''kya o’unkonke''' - <small>IMP be.loud-NEG</small> - ''Don’t speak loudly!''
| | === stative verbs === |
|
| |
|
| The morphological process of reduplication is irregular in Kala and is based primarily on the initial syllable of the word. The nasals ('''N'''), plosives ('''P'''), affricates ('''A'''), continuants ('''C'''), and semivowels and vowels ('''S''') each undergo various changes during reduplication.
| | = derivational morphology = |
|
| |
|
| * N → N/(y/u)
| | == nominalizers == |
| ::* '''muku''' - ''knife'' → '''mumuku''' – ''knives scattered around''
| |
| ::* '''muela''' - ''raspberry'' → '''memuela''' – ''raspberries scattered around'' / ''a bunch of raspberries''
| |
| ::* '''nyahi''' - ''snow'' → '''nanyahi''' – ''snow all around''
| |
| * P → nP/(y/u) or nP → P/(y/u)
| |
| ::* '''pana''' - ''rain'' → '''pampana''' – ''rain all around'' (“It’s raining all over.”)
| |
| ::* '''ntasi''' – ''excitement'' → '''ntatasi''' – ''chaotic fits''
| |
| ::* '''kano''' – ''dear; darling'' → '''kankano''' – ''“sweetie; lovey”''
| |
| ::* '''kyo’a''' – ''be quiet'' → '''konko’a''' – ''quietly''
| |
| * A → C/(y/u)
| |
| ::* '''tloso''' – ''annoy; bother'' → '''tloloso''' – ''bothersome''
| |
| ::* '''tsima''' – ''hour'' → '''tsisima''' – ''hourly; regularly''
| |
| ::* '''tsuama''' – ''sandwich'' → '''tsasuama''' – ''sandwiches scattered about'' / ''a sandwich tray''
| |
| * C → ~/(y/u) [mostly '''s''' → '''ts''' and '''h''' → '''k''']
| |
| ::* '''sama''' - ''sun'' → '''satsama''' – ''sunny; sunshine all around''
| |
| ::* '''suku''' - ''shop'' → '''sutsuku''' – ''marketplace; bazaar''
| |
| ::* '''hama''' – ''protect; defend'' → '''hakama''' – ''protective''
| |
| * S → '''‘u''' or '''~'''
| |
| ::* '''ima''' – ''now; yet'' → '''i’uma''' – ''immediately'' [sounds like /ˈjuːma/]
| |
| ::* '''etsa''' – ''degree; extent'' → '''e’utsa''' – ''extensive''
| |
|
| |
|
| === Gender === | | == reduplication == |
|
| |
|
| Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
| | == verbalizers == |
|
| |
|
| * <b>kuma</b> - <small>bear</small> - <i>a bear</i> → <b>kumana</b> - <small>bear-FEM</small> - <i>sow</i> → <b>kumata</b> - <small>bear-MASC</small> - <i>boar</i>
| | = syntax = |
| * <b>masa</b> - <small>deer</small> - <i>a deer</i> → <b>masana</b> - <small>deer-FEM</small> - <i>doe</i> → <b>masata</b> - <small>deer-MASC</small> - <i>stag</i>
| |
| * <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i> → <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i> → <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>
| |
|
| |
|
| === Case === | | == word order == |
|
| |
|
| Case is marked with suffixes. The regular forms of the case markers are given in the list below. Case is marked on noun phrases using null marking for agents, and '''-n''' for patients. The clitic '''-n''' can appear on multiple noun phrases in a single sentence at once, such as the direct object, indirect object, and adverbial nouns.
| | == case usage == |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 750px;"
| | == noun phrases == |
| ! Case
| |
| ! Suffix
| |
| ! Use
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Nominative<br>[NOM]
| |
| | '''-Ø'''
| |
| | ''indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Accusative<br>[ACC]
| |
| | '''-n'''
| |
| | ''indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as '''''Oblique''''' occasionally), instrument, or experiencer''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Genitive<br>[GEN]
| |
| | '''-yo'''
| |
| | ''indicates alienable association or possession (see also '''te''')''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Dative<br>[DAT]
| |
| | '''-la'''
| |
| | ''indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Locative<br>[LOC]
| |
| | '''-hue'''
| |
| | ''indicates location or circumstance''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Ablative<br>[ABL]
| |
| | '''-nte / -uai'''
| |
| | ''indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Comitative<br>[COM]
| |
| | '''-mua'''
| |
| | ''indicates instrument, or in company of something''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Abessive<br>[ABE]
| |
| | '''-mue'''
| |
| | ''indicates the lack or absence of something''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | Terminative<br>[TERM]
| |
| | '''-mpe'''
| |
| | ''indicates the extent, finality, or limit (also '''Limitative''')''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ==== Nominative ====
| |
| | |
| The nominative [NOM] is not marked [-Ø] and is in the absolutive form. It indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer.
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''na kanyo'''
| |
| : <small>1sg-NOM ask</small>
| |
| : ''I ask.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina'''
| |
| : <small>dog-NOM eat</small>
| |
| : ''A/the dog eats.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| ==== Accusative ====
| |
| | |
| The accusative [ACC] is marked with the clitic '''-n''' and indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as '''''Oblique''''' occasionally), instrument, or experiencer.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tlaka mitan anya'''
| |
| : <small>man-NOM dog-ACC see</small>
| |
| : ''A/The man sees a/the dog.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita kutsun ina'''
| |
| : <small>dog-NOM meat-ACC eat</small>
| |
| : ''A/the dog eats (the) meat.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| ==== Genitive ====
| |
| | |
| Genitive [GEN] -yo indicates alienable association or possession (see also te)
| |
| | |
| ==== Dative ====
| |
| | |
| Dative/Lative [DAT] -tle / -le indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object
| |
| | |
| ==== Locative ====
| |
| | |
| Locative [LOC] -hue indicates location or circumstance
| |
| | |
| ==== Ablative ====
| |
| | |
| Ablative [ABL] -nte / -uai indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location
| |
| | |
| ==== Comitative ====
| |
| | |
| Comitative [COM] -mua indicates instrument, or in company of something
| |
| | |
| ==== Abessive ====
| |
| | |
| Abessive [ABE] -mue indicates the lack or absence of something
| |
| | |
| ==== Terminative ====
| |
| | |
| Terminative [TERM] -mpe indicates the extent, finality, or limit (also Limitative)
| |
| | |
| == Pronouns ==
| |
| | |
| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Personal pronouns:
| |
| | |
| * '''na''' - 1st person
| |
| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
| |
| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
| |
| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Modifiers:
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''-m''' - plural
| | == numbers == |
| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
| |
| * '''e-''' - patient
| |
| * '''-i''' - reflexive
| |
| * '''-yo''' - possessive
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Other pronouns include:
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
| | == comparisons == |
| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
| |
| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
| |
| * '''nokua''' - everything
| |
| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
| |
| * '''nok''' - nothing
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| | == prepositions == |
| |+ nkalo
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Agent
| |
| ! Patient
| |
| ! Reflexive
| |
| ! Possessive
| |
| ! Reciprocal
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 1sg
| |
| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 2sg
| |
| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3sg
| |
| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 4sg
| |
| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
| |
| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 2pl
| |
| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3pl
| |
| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 4pl
| |
| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| ===Pronominal constructions=== | | == tense usage == |
|
| |
|
| The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-.
| | == moods == |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''neha anya'''
| |
| : <small>1s-P.3s see</small>
| |
| : ''I see her.''
| |
| | |
| * '''kameta motoyek'''
| |
| : <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''They didn’t remember you.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tametla yohauek'''
| |
| : <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''You (all) don’t want to have it.''
| |
| | |
| * '''nya tena tapya ka'''
| |
| : <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small>
| |
| : ''Why are you following me?''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| ! A/P
| |
| ! ''1sg''
| |
| ! ''2sg''
| |
| ! ''3sg''
| |
| ! ''4sg''
| |
| ! ''1pl''
| |
| ! ''1pl.EXCL''
| |
| ! ''2pl''
| |
| ! ''3pl''
| |
| ! ''4pl''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''1sg''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''neta'''
| |
| | '''neha'''
| |
| | '''netla'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''netam'''
| |
| | '''nekam'''
| |
| | '''netlam'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''2sg''
| |
| | '''tena'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''teha'''
| |
| | '''tetla'''
| |
| | '''tenam'''
| |
| | '''tena'am'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''tekam'''
| |
| | '''tetlam'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''3sg''
| |
| | '''hena'''
| |
| | '''heta'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''hetla'''
| |
| | '''henam'''
| |
| | '''hena'am'''
| |
| | '''hetam'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''hetlam'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''4sg''
| |
| | '''tlena'''
| |
| | '''tleta'''
| |
| | '''tleha'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''tlenam'''
| |
| | '''tlena'am'''
| |
| | '''tletam'''
| |
| | '''tlekam'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''1pl''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''nameta'''
| |
| | '''nameha'''
| |
| | '''nametla'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''nametam'''
| |
| | '''namekam'''
| |
| | '''nametlam'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''1pl.EXCL''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''na'ameta'''
| |
| | '''na'ameha'''
| |
| | '''na'ametla'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''na'ametam'''
| |
| | '''na'amekam'''
| |
| | '''na'ametlam'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''2pl''
| |
| | '''tamena'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''tameha'''
| |
| | '''tametla'''
| |
| | '''tamenam'''
| |
| | '''tamena'am'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''tamekam'''
| |
| | '''tametlam'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''3pl''
| |
| | '''kamena'''
| |
| | '''kameta'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''kametla'''
| |
| | '''kamenam'''
| |
| | '''kamena'am'''
| |
| | '''kametam'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''kametlam'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| ! ''4pl''
| |
| | '''tlamena'''
| |
| | '''tlameta'''
| |
| | '''tlameha'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| | '''tlamenam'''
| |
| | '''tlamena'am'''
| |
| | '''tlametam'''
| |
| | '''tlamekam'''
| |
| | '''-'''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| === Reflexives and Reciprocals ===
| |
| Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''na'i sepaye'''
| |
| : <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small>
| |
| : ''I hurt myself.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ha'i tlela'''
| |
| : <small>3s.REFL bathe</small>
| |
| : ''She bathes herself.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa'''
| |
| : <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love</small>
| |
| : ''My parents love each other.''
| |
| | |
| * '''na'anku amyapak'''
| |
| : <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tanakoli matakiye'''
| |
| : <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
| |
| : ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''kanku ke tanakoli matakiye'''
| |
| : <small>3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| === Determiners & Demostratives ===
| |
| | |
| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
| |
| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
| |
| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
| |
| | |
| Examples:
| |
| | |
| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs''
| |
| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
| |
| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
| |
| | |
| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
| |
| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
| |
| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
| |
| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
| |
| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
| |
| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
| |
| * '''maha''' - more; plus
| |
| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| === Correlatives ===
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| |+ uatse
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
| |
| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
| |
| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
| |
| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
| |
| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
| |
| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! mo<br>''(place)''
| |
| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ko<br>''(person)''
| |
| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
| |
| |-
| |
| ! uku<br>''(amount)''
| |
| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ama<br>''(time)''
| |
| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
| |
| |-
| |
| ! so<br>''(kind, type)''
| |
| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
| |
| |-
| |
| ! no<br>''(thing)''
| |
| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
| |
| |-
| |
| ! to<br>''(manner, way)''
| |
| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| == Verbs ==
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| | |
| '''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']] and the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning; their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adverbial, and plural endings are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
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| <tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
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| Example:
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+
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| |-
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| ! Verb Stem
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| ! Size/Importance
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| ! Mood
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| ! Aspect
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| ! Tense
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| ! Negative
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| |-
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| | '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
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| |-
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| | run || DIM || ABIL || PROG || PST || NEG
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| |}
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''na empahipankoyek'''
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| : <small>1s run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
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| : ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
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| * '''na empahik'''
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| : <small>1s run-DIM-able-NEG</small>
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| : ''I don’t jog.''
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| * '''na empankoye'''
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| : <small>1s run-PROG-PST</small>
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| : ''I was running.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''na empa’uk'''
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| : <small>1s run-ABIL-NEG</small>
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| : ''I can’t run.''
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| * '''na empayepak'''
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| : <small>1s run-PST-ABIL-NEG</small>
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| : ''I couldn’t run.''
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| * '''na empahahye'''
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| : <small>1s run-AUG-REC</small>
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| : ''I just sprinted.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| === Tense ===
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| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''. Kala’s distinguishing three levels of both past and future time is a unique typological trait. The use of the variations of past and future are not subject to strict grammatical rules and are a question of pragmatics. The recent and immediate markers are most commonly used for near-scope, that is, things which have just happened or will happen very soon. Of the triad tense–aspect–mood this section will only cover basic uses of the marked tense categories, followed by a discussion of complex tense combinations such as past-in-future. Subsequent sections will provide more insight into the morphological marking of aspectual categories; and the following section deals with the morphology of mood marking in Kala. Verbs in Kala are unmarked for present tense, as it is the normal mode of speaking. Besides being used to comment or report on current events, the present tense is also used to make statements of general truth. Also, Kala does not strictly mark its verbs for past tense in narrative discourses (instead the adverbial '''aye''' (“''it was''”) will start the first phrase); verbs may therefore appear as a present-time reference in spite of recounting past events, whether historical or fictional.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
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| |+ eme
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| |-
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| !
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| ! ''Kala''
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| ! ''gloss''
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| ! ''English''
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| |-align=center
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| | remote past
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| | '''kamahi hina<span style="color:red">yeha</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''hai'''</span>
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| | <small>town-DIM be.here-[[wp:Past_tense|REM]]</small>
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| | ''There was a village here (long ago).<br>''(before the lifetime of the speaker)
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| |-align=center
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| | past
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| | '''naka mita anya<span style="color:red">ye</span>'''
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| | <small>woman dog see-[[wp:Past_tense|PST]]</small>
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| | ''The woman saw the dog.''
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| |-align=center
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| | recent past
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| | '''ota namyo akya<span style="color:red">yehi</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''hye'''</span>
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| | <small>father 1pl.GEN wake-[[wp:Past_tense|REC]]</small>
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| | ''Our father just woke.<br>''(action just finished)
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| |-align=center
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| | present
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| | '''mita tahi yatsi'''
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| | <small>dog boy bite</small>
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| | ''The dog bites the boy.''
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| |-align=center
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| | future
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| | '''naka tahi tlepa<span style="color:red">tli</span>'''
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| | <small>woman boy teach-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
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| | ''The woman will teach the boy.''
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| |-align=center
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| | immediate future
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| | '''na tlela<span style="color:red">tlihi</span>'''<br>or <span style="color:red">-'''tlai'''</span>
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| | <small>1s bathe-[[wp:Future_tense|IMM]]</small>
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| | ''I'll bathe soon.''<br>(within the day)
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| |-align=center
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| | distant future
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| | '''panam opua<span style="color:red">tliha</span>'''
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| | <small>rain-PL end-[[wp:Future_tense|DIS]]</small>
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| | ''The rains will end.''<br>(months from now)
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| |}
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| The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "''now; at this time''"; If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
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| * '''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
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| * '''yomaye nam ina''' – <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> – ''We ate yesterday.''
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| * '''anyotli ha huato''' – <small>year-FUT 3s move.about</small> – ''He will move next year.''
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| * '''semaye kamena ke mita yeta''' – <small>week-PST 3pl-P.1s O dog give</small> – ''(A) week(s) ago they gave me a dog.''
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| Note that the recent and the remote past tense are not generally marked if the past context is clear, for instance, when a past context has already been established in discourse. This may also happen explicitly by using a temporal adverbial such as '''yomaye''' (“''yesterday''”) or '''anyoye nye’o''' (“''a hundred years ago''”). In the presence of an explicit temporal adverb, redundant tense marking is also dropped subsequently. Like the past tense, the future is often not explicitly marked if the time frame is clear from context or has been clarified with such adverbials as “''tomorrow''”.
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| “''Already''”, past in past & past in future; so far, we have only dealt with tense marking from the point of view of the present. However, it is also possible to refer to an event which precedes another event in the past. Kala uses the particle '''tso''' ("''already; since''") to indicate actions that took place prior to the primary tense of the verb. It is most often placed at the beginning of a verb phrase.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tso mikelo yetla inaye'''
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| : <small>already Michael DIST-4s eat-PST</small>
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| : ''Michael already ate that (before).''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tso maliya yetla inatli ama nam talatli'''
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| : <small>already Mary DIST-4s eat-FUT time 1pl arrive-FUT</small>
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| : ''Mary will have already eaten that (before) when we (will) arrive.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| === Aspect ===
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| There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "''to continue; proceed; progress''". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "''to end; finish; complete''". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "''to begin; start; initiate''". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "''frequent; often; regular''".
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
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| !
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| ! ''Kala''
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| ! ''gloss''
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| ! ''English''
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| |-align=center
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| | Continuous
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| | '''na ke niye puku<span style="color:red">nko</span>'''
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| | <small>1s O undergarment wear-[[wp:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|CONT]]</small>
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| | ''I am wearing underclothes.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Frequentative
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| | '''tlaka ke apua tlato<span style="color:red">nua</span>'''
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| | <small>man O song recite-[[wp:Frequentative|FREQ]]</small>
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| | ''The man recites the song repetitively.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Inchoative
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| | '''nahi yoti<span style="color:red">mu</span>'''
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| | <small>girl play-[[wp:Inchoative_aspect|INCH]]</small>
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| | ''The girl begins to play.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Perfective
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| | '''kam ina<span style="color:red">pua</span>'''
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| | <small>3pl eat-[[wp:Perfective_aspect|PFV]]</small>
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| | ''They have eaten.''
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| |}
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| A few aspectual derivations:
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| * '''kuali''' - drill; bore; dig into → '''kualinua''' - cultivate, farm
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| * '''oma''' – shout; yell → '''omanua''' - scream
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| * '''noko''' – stay; remain → '''nokonua''' - survive, be resilient
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| * '''moku''' – sleep; rest → '''mokumu''' – fall asleep
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| * '''yelo''' – ice → '''yelomu''' – freeze; solidify → '''yelopua''' – frozen; solid
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| === Mood ===
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| Besides various aspects, '''Kala''' also marks moods other than [[wp:Realis_mood|realis]]: irrealis, imperative, hortative, and negative. These are also expressed by suffixes on the verb and typically follow aspectual marking where it is expressed by a suffix. As is common throughout natural and constructed languages, the indicative mood is unmarked. Subjunctive, conditional, and imperative moods are marked lexically, by various particles, and as such are covered in detail in the “particles” of this grammar.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
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| !
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| ! ''Kala''
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| ! ''gloss''
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| ! ''English''
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| |-align=center
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| | Abilitative
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| | '''na mokuye<span style="color:red">pa</span>k'''
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| | <small>1s sleep-PST-[[wp:Natchez_language#Preverbs|ABIL]]-NEG</small>
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| | ''I was unable to sleep.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Attemptative
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| | '''neko ke panya mata<span style="color:red">pya</span>'''
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| | <small>cat O mouse kill-ATT</small>
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| | ''The cat is trying to kill the mouse.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Desiderative
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| | '''otsokai ka'e moli yala<span style="color:red">ue</span>'''
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| | <small>wolf-red toward forest go-[[wp:Desiderative_mood|DES]]</small>
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| | ''Redwolf wants/intends to go to the forest.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Dubitative
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| | '''ha tsakahue<span style="color:red">ke</span>'''
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| | <small>3s home-LOC-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Dubitative|DUB]]</small>
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| | ''I guess he is at home.'' lit: ''He is at home, supposedly.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Hortative
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| | '''yala<span style="color:red">kya</span>'''
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| | <small>walk-[[wp:Hortative|HORT]]</small>
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| | ''Let's go!''
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| |-align=center
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| | Necessitative
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| | '''mita ina<span style="color:red">he</span>'''
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| | <small>dog eat-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Necessitative|NEC]]</small>
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| | ''The dog needs to eat.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Negative
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| | '''naku nayo hina<span style="color:red">k</span>'''
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| | <small>sister 1s-GEN be.here-[[wp:Affirmative_and_negative|NEG]]</small>
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| | ''My sister is not here.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Permissive
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| | '''ta ke hina sima<span style="color:red">myo</span>k'''
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| | <small>2s O here sit-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Permissive|PERM]]-NEG</small>
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| | ''You are not allowed to sit here.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Precative
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| | '''ke asi yeta<span style="color:red">te</span>'''
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| | <small>O salt give-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Precative|PREC]]</small>
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| | ''Will you please pass me the salt?''
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| |-align=center
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| | Preparative
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| | '''tahi moku<span style="color:red">sue</span>'''
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| | <small>boy sleep-PREP</small>
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| | ''The boy is ready to sleep.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Propositive
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| | '''ta moku<span style="color:red">ne</span>'''
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| | <small>2s sleep-[[wp:Propositive_mood|PROP]]</small>
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| | ''You should sleep.''
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| |}
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| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
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| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
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| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
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| === Evidentiality ===
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| Verb clauses in '''Kala''' may optionally be marked for evidentiality, particularly if the described event took place in the past and/or when the speaker was not directly involved in it. This set of six verbal suffixes indicating the nature of the evidence supporting a statement. These morphemes are not obligatory; however, the lack of an evidential in a main clause not marked as interrogative or irrealis is usually taken as a sign of pure speculation and thus likely to raise suspicions about the statement's truth.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
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| !
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| ! ''Kala''
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| ! ''gloss''
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| ! ''English''
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| |-align=center
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| | Visual [VIS]
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| | '''kam ke yoti matsu<span style="color:red">nya</span>'''
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| | <small>3pl O game win-VIS</small>
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| | ''They won the game.'' (<tt>I saw it</tt>)
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| |-align=center
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| | Auditory [AUD]
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| | '''naku hayo ke metlamya<span style="color:red">nu</span>'''
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| | <small>sister 3s.GEN O flute-CAUS-AUD</small>
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| | ''His sister plays the flute.'' (<tt>I heard it</tt>)
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| |-align=center
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| | Hearsay [HSY]<br>(''reported speech'')
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| | '''<span style="color:red">kye</span> ota tayo kupanko'''
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| | <small>HSY father 2s.GEN die-CONT</small>
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| | (<tt>it is said</tt>) ''Your father is dying.''
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| |-align=center
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| | Inferred [INFR]
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| | '''kola ke katso kuha<span style="color:red">tsi</span>'''
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| | <small>AG.INDEF O meal cook-INF</small>
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| | ''Someone is cooking a meal.'' (<tt>based on evidence</tt>)
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| |-align=center
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| | Assumptive/Assertive [ASS]
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| | '''ke maliya kantipua<span style="color:red">ho</span>'''
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| | <small>O Maria cheat-PFV-ASS</small>
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| | ''Maria has been cheated.'' (<tt>I assert</tt>)
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| |}
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| As can be seen in the above examples, there are two direct evidentials, and three indirect;
| | == aspect == |
|
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|
| * ''Direct'':
| | == conditionals == |
| : -'''nya''' - visual evidence, the speaker witnessed the event
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| : -'''nu''' - auditory/general evidence, the speaker heard/felt the event
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|
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|
| * ''Indirect'':
| | == subordinate clauses == |
| : '''kye''' - reported speech; hearsay, the speaker received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate
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| : -'''tsi''' - inferred based on physical evidence
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| : -'''ho''' - assumed or asserted based on experience
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| = Particles = | | == negatives == |
|
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| * '''ka''' - interrogative particle
| | == questions == |
